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THE JOURNAL

OF THE

QIIEKETT MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.

VOL. I.

JANUARY, 1868, TO OCTOBEK, 1869.

[published for the club,]

BY

ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX.— (Frontispiece.)

Represents the dorsal aspect of the fly's proboscis, mounted in balsam
■without pressiu-e, magnified about 40 diameters, and it is intended to shew the
relations of the several parts. The lips are more inflated than is natural
during life, a result which cannot be avoided in preparations like that from
which the accompanying plate is taken.

ERRATA IN VOL. I.

Page 77, Hue 8 from bottom, for "varieties" read "rarities."
Page 79, line 11 from top, for " place" read " plane."
Page 135, after line 13, insert Bushey Park, May 2nd.

INTEODUCTION TO VOL. I.

> • ♦ * c

Soon after the formation of the Quekett Microscopical Club, it
was thought desirable that a permanent record of its proceedings
should be formed, and that this should be done in such a manner as
to maintain the control of the publication entirely in the hands of
the committee and to confine it to the purpose for which it was
intended.

The following pages therefore contain all the papers read before
the Club during the last two years (with the exception of one or
two published elsewhere), together with reports of discussions
arising thereon. They also contain notices of apparatus and
objects exhibited and other matters of Microscopic interest which
may have been brought before the members.

September, 1869.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

^xxcluit pkrosrapual €lnh.

Ox Universal Microscopic Admeasurement. By M. C. Cooke.
(Read March 23rd, 1866.)

The student who confines himself to English books, and shuts
his eyes and ears to everything German, French, or Italian, will
hardly have experienced any trouble or annoyance from the fact
that, in describing a microscopical object, our continental neigh-
bours univei'sally employ a measurement which is as strange to us
as their language, and expressed in terms of the value of which
we have no experience. As now used, the dimensions of objects
require translation as much as the language in which the descrip-
tion is written, with the disadvantage that the translation is not
so readily made, or the power of translating so easily applied.
We may suppose that the description of a minute object, be it
diatom, insect, or mould, is written, as it always should be, in
Latin ; the measurements, however, though expressed sometimes in
Latin, are more commonly read from a standard which is to us
practically unknown.

It will be better, in the first instance, to look over the map of the
world, and see in what civilised portions microscopic study is pur-
sued, and what is the unit of measurement adopted, before we
attempt any project to remedy the evil. We may fairly confine
ourselves to Europe and America, without fear lest Asia and
Africa should protest against being left out, because all the students
in those regiors will be " exports" from Europe or America.
Australia is not much troubled with microscopical students. Her
sons have not yet found time to stand for hours at one end of a
microscope.

M. C. COOKE ON UNIVERSAL

In Europe we may particularise Germany, in its widest sense,
ncluding all who speak or write the German Language, with whom
:ould be included the few Scandinavians who pursue the study,
and thus the German District would be held to mean all Northern
Europe, from the shores of tlae German Ocean to the confines of
Russia. Then France may be alluded to as including also Switzer-
land, and wherever the French tongue is employed. The South
of Europe is represented only by Italy, for Austria belongs to
Germany, the Turks are too idle, the Greeks too miserable, the
Spaniards too intiiguing, and the Portuguese too illiterate, to
produce any contributions to microscopical literature. Of America
we speak as I'estricted to North America, not including Mexico
and Labrador, but the United States and Canada, where the
English tongue prevails. So that the five microscopical centres
are Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and America, extended or
limited in application as already provided. From all parts of
Germany and France the literature contains microscopical ad-
measurements with the millemetre as the " unit." In Britain and
America the inch is the unit. Only a few years ago and the line
was employed in France by some, whilst the millemetre was em-
ployed by others, and in Germany the line was chiefly used as the
miit : this was sometimes the Prussian line and sometimes the
Paris line. In fact, some of the states seem to have been inde-
pendent of both, for we find, in Bohemia for instance, measure-
ments employed, the unit of which corresponds with none of those
alluded to. Time has wrought wonders, and now all the best
German authorities — or those, at least, with which we have had to do
— employ the millemetre. In France, too, the line is seldom
thought of — I think it may safely be said, never employed. Very
few Italians have devoted themselves to the microscope, or if they
have, they have not contributed much to microscopic literature.
Recently, Professor De Notaris has probably contributed most,
and he invariably adopts the French millemetre for his standard,
whence I have jumped to the conclusion that this measurement
is most approved in Italy. The exceptions in the five centres, to
which I have alluded, are so few that I think they do not militate
against the conclusion that the Anglo-Saxon adheres to his.
inch and all the rest have adopted more or less the French
millemetre.

I may perhaps be permitted, for the benefit of younger and less

MICROSCOnC ADMEASUREMENT. 6

experienced members, to state what the millemetre is. As the
Englishman deliglits in halving and quartering, so the Frenchman
drops naturally into decimals. The Paris metre is about 3 inches
more than an English yard, and this, divided into 100 parts, gives
centimetres, which are about equivalent to rather more than one-
third of an English inch, each centimetre again divided into tenths
gives millemetres, which are consequently the one-thousandth part
of a metre, or of 39 inches. This millemetre is (roughly) equal to
rather less than one-twenty-fifth of an English inch or x^ow ^^
an inch, or, decimally expressed, .03937. The conversion therefore
of English into French or French into English measurements is
somewhat of a task, and liable to error.

The only method which can be adopted, is to multiply our ex-
pression of a millimetre in decimal fractions of an inch, by the
decimals representing the French term under conversion ; thus — to
determine in English measurement 0.33 ^ m qj. _^^ ^f ^ mille-
metre, we must multiply .03937 by 0.33., which will give

.03937
33

11811
11811

.0129921 of an inch.

Taking care that there are as many decimal places to the right of
the point as the sum of the decimal places in both terms.

It will be admitted that there is one plan, and one alone, which
is superior to the most facile mode of conversion — namely, the
adoption amongst all microscopists, both at home and abroad, of one
unit of measurement. The question to be discussed is, how can
this be attained ? I think the answer a simple one. We already
admit that the temis shoiild be expressed in decimals, for the old
plan of employing vulgar fractions, like other obsolete customs,
will soon become a matter of history. The only disputed point is
the unit, whether it shall be the inch or the millimetre, or yard and
metre, if you will ; for the yard is in reality our unit, of which the
inch is merely the twelfth of the third, as the metre is the miit of
Paris, save that we first divide it into three parts, and each into

B 2

4 M. C. COOKE ON UNIVERSAL

twelve parts, and then commence decimals ; true to the same
spirit of contrariety whereby we take the sovereign as the unit,
and then divide it into twenty parts, each into twelve, and then
each again into four.

It will scarcely be supjiosed that all Eiirope will do us the honour
of accepting either oiir inch, or our yard, as the standard ; biit we
may do ourselves honour by following the example of Germany and
Italy, and adopt the French standard, and recognise the millemetre
as the unit of microscopical admeasurement. The fact that the
metre, of which the millemetre is a portion, forms no ]3art of our
English measure, is no objection, because our experience of the
length of a foot is of no service to us when we descend to the
minute fractions of a microscopical object. In the latter case, we
lose all appreciation of the foot or yard, and really establish some
new standard, with which comparison is made, whether ^-J^ or
i-sW *^f ^^^ ^"^^1* ; ^^*^ that becomes the standard with which,
practically, we compare the dimensions of our object. In a month,
we should be able to realise the relative dimensions of objects ex-
pressed in millemetres, even more readily than we now express them
in thousandths of an inch, because the integer is one-twenty-fifth of
the dimensions, and the fractions would come nearer to our expe-
rience ; we have a nmch better conception of the 25th of a
small object than of the 625th of a larger one. Let us, for
example, take the frustide of a diatom, the length of which
^^ ■g'oTy of ^^^ inch. It requires a greater mental effort
to realise the dimensions thus stated, than it would to
realise the 20th of a millemetre. If we take more minute objects,
the same argument will be even more applicable : a vegetable cell
■yjy^Q-jjth of an inch is entirely out of our range of experiences in
dimensions, as thus expressed, because we speak of thousandths
oftener than we realise them. If it were stated as the ^^th of
a millemetre, though now less familiar with the positive length of
the millemetre than the inch, we should learn to realise the mille-
metre, and its 280th part, before we could compass j-^xyu of an inch.
There is another argument, Avhich, I think, should have its weight.
Wc are becoming microscopical as a nation, and by employing at
once an unit known all over the continent, we introduce ourselves,
and our literature, into an equal competition with their own;
whereas, we now meet other Europeans at a disadvantage. We all
know how generally the Latin language is employed in scientific

MICROSCOPIC ADMEASUREMENT. O

description, and with wliat facility a foreign savant catches up an
English work written in Latin. It is equally as essential in micros-
copy, if we Avould not be behind all other nations, to adopt an
admeasurement which shall be as universal as Latin, if we desire
that the honour of Old England shall be maintained in the arts of
peace in the eminence she has acquired in the art of war. Or else,
when the time comes for the roar of the English cannon to be no
more heard on the ocean, and the gleam of the English bayonet be
no more seen on the hills, the name of England will fade away
and be forgotten, or only remembered for her gunpowder and steeL

The machinery and labour which it would cost to introduce our
pet inch as the standard all over the world, would be enormous.
The power to introduce the European standard into all countries in
which English is spoken, lies in the hands of a few : it rests with
the microscopists of London. If they adopt it, those in the
provinces will follow the example, and, in self-defence, our colonists
will do the same ; then if America does not think fit to fall in, she
will become as isolated in microscopy as if she spoke and wrote in
an unknown toLgue.

If we reduce the question to the smallest number of words, we
shall find it standing in something lilce the following fomi : — It
is advisable that one and the same method of measuring and re-
cording the dimensions of microscopic objects shall be adopted
universally in all countries where microscopical observations are
published.

It would be impracticable to attempt to introduce an entirely
new standard, without the earnest co-operation of microscopists
throughoiit Europe.

The adoption of any standard universally, independent of the
value of its unit — if capable of accomplishment — would be a real
benefit to microscopical science.

The French method is adopted by three-fifths of those interested,
and is, therefore, the one which might be rendered universal with
the least opposition.

The adoption of the millemetre as the standard is, therefore, in-
cumbent upon British microscopists, if they would advance, and
not obstruct, the cause which they are presumed to have at heart.

A few words on the mode by which I conceive it possible for
this climax to be attained, and I have dune.

The first step, and the one without which no others can be

6 M. C. COOKE OX UNIVERSAL

taken, appeals to the trading commuuity, as represented by the
opticians. Every facility must be afforded for the purchase in this
country of micrometers, carefully and correctly graduated to the
French scale, on the same terms as English micrometers are now
supplied. Because, unless the English amateur can obtain readily
such a scale without sending specially, as I have been obliged to
do, to Paris for the purpose, the majority will not take the
trouble. It did not occur to me, until I had applied to one of our
largest firms, that these micrometers are by no means easy to
obtain in town.

This is in itself an evidence of how little we know practically of
the French micrometers. Every member of the Q. M. C. should
order one immediately of any optician who may be present in the
room, and in the course of a week we should see French micrometers
advertised, and the movement fairly and successfully commenced.

The next step — and one in which I purpose to march myself,
even if I march alone — is to em])loy the French measurements,
either with or without the English, in all published accounts of
microscopical objects in which measurements are enlployed. We
may rest- assured that our object will be achieved more speedily by
using the millemetral measurement only, and forgetting the inch,
save as a matter of history. Every one who wishes well to the adop-
tion of an universal admeasurement, should secretly and silently
pledge himself, from this night forward and for ever, to abjiire the
inch.

Having done this, we should addi-ess an appeal to all micros-
copists in this countiy who are in the habit of publishing micros-
copical measurements, urging that by this means they will render
their labou.rs more valuable to students abroad, without detracting
from their value at home.

Finally, we should draw up and forward a brief ultimatum
printed in French or Latin, to the secretaries of all the leading acade-
mies and learned societies in Europe, requesting them to make the
contents known amongst the savans of their own country; such ulti-
matum being to the effect that the adoption of the French method
all over Europe would prove of inestimable value to men of science
in all countries ; that the effort is being made to establish it in
Britain; and calling upon them to aid us in securing an universal
system of measurement ; and I feel confident in its success.

Now, gentlemen, I have laid before you all the details which I

MlCUOSCOnC ADMEASUREMENT. 7

think necessary, both as to the desirability, the practicability, and
the mode of obtaining universality in one point connected with "our
hobby." It is for you to decide whether the Q. M. C. shall bind
the laurel wreath about its young but sturdy brow. It is for you
to determine whether the honour of appealing on a common object
to the microscopists of Europe shall be yours. It is for you to
decide whether from England, whence many a missive has fled in
days gone by, at which some individual nation has had cause to shud-
der, shall now hear from us, instead of the thunders of three-
deckers, the peaceful welcome to a bond of brotherhood. It is for
you to determine if the crowning effort of a year of glorious success
shall be to prepare the way for the more glorious success of future
years, by repudiating the use of figures which, to thousands of
fellow-workers, from the Seine to the Danube, have no meaning ;
and to whom they are almost as barbarous as the hieroglyphics of
^gypt? orthe "pot-hooks and hangers" of Nineveh. It is yourgood
fortune that this new Eeform Bill should have been left for you to
pass, and whilst learned societies at home are debating whether the
markings of Pleurosigma angulatum can be resolved into " willow
leaves," or dodecahedrons, or what relation the Maroons of Jamaica
bear to the anthropomorphoid apes, that it should be left for you
to indicate a practical good, for which a future generation shall
have cause to be thankful. And, more than all, that you should
have the credit of breaking through the sullen and selfish morose-
ness of Englishmen, and take the initiative of spreading abroad
your arms from Sweden to Italy, and from Paris to St. Petersburg,
to shake all fellow-workers by the hand, whether they date their
ancestry to a Maximilian or Charlemagne, to Julius Ctesar or to
Peter the Great.

It is but a small work in itself that I have invited you to per-
form, but who shall prophecy the end ? A good work is sure to
bring its own reward, and if by such a step you introduce yourselves
into correspondence with mici-oscopists abroad — if by these legiti-
mate means, and in a good cause, you make yourselves known
throughout the continent — the Quekett Club will not be forgotten j
and when in future years the shelves of our library bend beneath
the weight of contributions to microscopical science from all parts of
the world, we shall hail them as the labours of friends, and rejoice
that one of the first acts in our career was to smooth their road by
kicking a stumbling block out of the way.

On Pseudo-scorpiones. By S. J. McIntire.
(Read Oct. 26th, 1867.;

Whilst making observations on Podurse in the months of June,
July, and August last year, my attention was frequently drawn to
a small spider-like creature, about the size of a pin's head, that
made its appearance under certain boards and brick-bats which
were the favourite haunts of the black Podura. It was usually
discovered nestled in some crevice, and its legs were packed so as
to occupy very httle space, but on being disturbed it would walk
away steadily. If a capture were attempted, it made vigorous
efforts to escape, running with great speed either backwards, for-
wards, or sideways. Its invariable occurrence in connection
with Podm-cB led me to thmk it sought the retreat of these
insects for the purpose of preying upon them, and further acquaint-
ance has confirmed me in that opinion.

A friend of mine in the country (at Theale), submitted to my
inspection, in the early part of this year, a little reddish brown
creature, like one I remembered to have seen in the late Mr.
Richard Beck's possession, at Mr. Hardwicke's conversazione in
Dec, 1865, and wliich Mr. Beck said had been sent him by a corn-
dealer. On comparing this Pseudo-scorpion and many subsequent
specimens with the creatures I was often finding, I soon learnt that
the name Chelifer, which I had applied to my own captures in con-
sequence of seeing several mounted slides so named, was incorrect;
and reference to the books at hand caused me to come to the con-
clusion that the creature from Theale was a real Chelifer (probably
Chelifer Latreillei), but the little persecutor of my Podura3 was an
Obisium (0. Orthodactylum).

In Wood's " Natural History," * the order is characterised as
follows .

PSEUDO-SCORPIONES.— Cephalothorax united to abdomen ;
abdomen ringed ; palpi large, with pincers at top.

It is separated into genera.

Chelifer. — Eyes two ; cephalothorax divided by transverse
furrow.

*

The Illustrated Natural History by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., in Three
Vols. Quarto. Routledgc aud Co.

ON PSEUDO-SCORPIONES. 'J

Ohisium. — Eyes four ; cephalotborax not divided.

Of the two species of Chelifer and Obisium to which I refer, ami
which I am unable to name, the Chelifer is by far the larger. The
structure of their feet enables both creatures to walk in an inverted
position on the under-surface of glass, but the Obisium performs
the feat best. I have often seen it thus walking, and have occa-
sionally witnessed the Chelifer making the attempt.

For a long time I was under the impression that the Chelifer
did not possess eyes at all, but was gifted with more than ordinarily
acute hearing and touch, so as to compensate for this deficiency, and
it was only after I had mounted one of the creatures in Deane's
gelatine medium that I corrected myself on this point, and was
satisfied that it really does possess two ; so difficult is it to detect
these organs in the hving creature. Even in Obisium, where the
eyes are four, and are situated in pairs, one behind the other, at
the sides of the head, the observer is very liable to overlook
them.

The falces in both genera consist of two powerful hooked mandibles,
which are the weapons with which the prey is killed. Between
them there may be noticed one or two comb-like structures whose
office it is to clean the hairs on the pincers after a meal. Their
exact form and the mode of their attachment, I have not been able
to ascertain with certainty, but I shall have to revert to this sub-
ject presently. The falces in Chelifer are not so conspicuous as in
Obisium, but they are used with great effect on the captured prey,
and the nippers of the former far exceed those of Obisium in size
and strength. Woe betide the luckless insect that invades the
seclusion of the Chelifer, and falls into the grasp of those cruel,
scorpion-like claws.

Immediately on being dropped into a cell, the newly captured
Chelifer will search every part of it, his nippers extended in front
of him, and having ascertained that there are no means of exit, and
that there are no intruders, if there be a snug little corner any-
where he will take possession of it. There he sits for hours, occa-
sionally lubricating (or perhaps cleansing) the ends of his pincers
by passing them through the falces, but in no other respect betray-
ing any sign of life. Should a fewPodur^e meanwhile be introduced
into the cell, he will show he is aware of the fact by reaching out at
them whenever they pass near his sanctum. If hungry, he will
follow slowly, and poke his nippers in all directions, in the hope of a

10 S. J. MC'iNTTRE

capture. These proceedings lead one to think his sight is none of
the hest in hroad daylight, or under the luminous beam from the
lamp. Sometimes he seems to detect their approach very quickly,
and at other times he will not discover their presence till he has
stumbled over them, and their terrified hurry to escape has put him
on the qui vive when it is too late. If he shoiild seize the Podura
by a leg, or one of its antennae, the frightened insect leaps away
minus the member — a very common occurrence — but if his grip is
better placed, say at the head or body, escape is impossible, and the
powerful claw quickly transfers the creature to the falces, which do
not let go again till the meal is finished, that is, till all the fluids
are sucked away.

Should the Chelifer, in these foraging expeditions, meet one of his
own kind, he immediately prepares for battle and displays con-
siderable ijugnacity and skill. Two Chelifers meeting, invariably
try to seize each other's claws, and in default of this, shake their
own in a menacing and ludicrous manner. If they are unequally
matched, the weaker one is pulled closer and closer, till the embrace
becomes deadly, and then the victor makes a meal of him ; but I
have sometimes seen a couple of well matched combatants both retire
exhausted from the contest to their respective corners. It is not
unfrequent to see one Chelifer shewing fight to another, whilst a
dying Podura is quivering in the cruel grasp of its falces, j ust like a
mouse in the jaws of a cat.

I have enclosed various larvse and small insects with the Chelifer,
and always found the intrusion of one of these into its privacy was
resented by an attack on the invader, sometimes ending in its death.
Generally, however, one touch of the formidable nipper was a
sufficient hint to the trespasser to beat a hasty retreat.

One specimen in my possession has constructed for itself a snug
little home, consisting of a silken bag, into which he often retires.
He generally, however, sits in the entrance, and only withdraws
from observation when disturbed. Sometimes he goes abroad and
walks round the cell, but he invariably goes back to his own corner
afterwards. I noticed this iteculiarity with some surprise, for I
did not expect a Chelifer could spin any web, and I am uncertain
that he has not availed himself of something previously in the cell
suitable to his purpose. The texture of the cell is very like the web
made by the house spider.

One of the most curious points in the history of the Chelifer

ON PSEUDO-SCORPIONES. 11

relates to the manner in which its young are produced. In the
months of June and July, I noticed that several of the most healthy
specimens were disfigured by the appearance of a light yellow wart
or protuberance (just like a bud) under the abdomen, and close to the
junction of the fourth pair of legs with the body. This increased
in size, and in about a fortnight from its first appearance, during
which time it had spread out beyond the diameter of the Chelifer's
abdomen, and seriously incommoded the movements of the creature,
it dropped off, and I then could distinguish in the irregularities of
its surface the rudimentary forms of about a dozen young Chelifers,
which were contained in it. I failed to trace the perfect develope-
ment of the yoimg, though I tried six or seven times. Twice I
had great hopes of success ; but in one of these instances, an
adult Chelifer was discovered making his breakfast off the bunch
of young ones, and in the other, a detachment of cheese-mites,
which had, unknown to me, taken possession of the cell containing
the interesting object, plied their mandibles with great effect, though
the result was attained more slowly than in the former case.

By the way, these little Acari will take refuge inmost out-of-the-
way places, and remain there without food (provided they are not
dried up) for a very long time — months even — but immediately any-
thing eatable presents itself, they come out of their hiding places, a
veritable horde of assassins. Were our unaided vision microscopic,
probably we should often find, when and where we least expect to
do so, a concealed family of these Acari waiting for a turn in their
fortunes, which they know too well how to avail themselves of when it
occurs. That these were cheese -mites, I am quite certain, for I
traced whence they all came, and have had plenty of experience that
cheese-mites will eat other substances besides cheese ; they are
even capable of attacking other Acari. But I return to my subject,
leaving this one to a future opportunity.

My other failures in breeding Chelifers arose from my not having
been successful in perfectly imitating their natural condition ; but
I intend pursuing the enquiry when the circumstances are favour-
able.

The habits of Obisium may be said not to differ from those of
the Chelifei", after making allowances for its not being so well de-
fended by a hard shell and formidable weapons as that creature is.
Its weakness in these respects, and in point of size, leads to a dis-
play of greater caution and somewhat less pugnacity than is

12

8. J. MC INTIRE

exhibited by the Chelifer. It is often seen to take fright and rrni
away from a lively, though perfectly harmless fellow captive ; and
in doing so it retreats hastily backwards, as if aware how defence-
less its abdomen is in case of an attack on that quarter. The im-
prisonment of an Obisium with a Cheliferhas always, in my expe-
rience, proved fatal to it. Sooner or later, it came within reach of
the Chelifer's claws, and yielded up its life to the grim tyrant.
Perhaps it does not deserve much pity, however, under the circum-
stances, for its treatment of young Podur* is exactly similar to
that which it receives at the claws of its relation. I thhik it finds
the adult Poduraj too active and too large to be conveniently
despatched, so it lets them alone, confining its attentions to the
very small ones, and to the Acari frequenting damp places, the
former insect being its staple food.

In one specimen I have been able, though in other respects it
is very badly mounted, to get a glimpse of the structure of the
sucking apparatus. The mouth is a considerable- sized chamber.
Its exterior opening is rather small, but the entrance to the gullet
is furnished with an organ which acts like the piston and vahes of
a pump, to convey the fluids of the wounded Podura, held by the
falces at the entrance of the mouth, into the interior economy of
the Obisium.

The Obisium chooses for its home a damp and dark situation, well
sheltered from cold. Usually, in warm weather, it takes up its
residence under a board or an old flower pot, but on cold days a
search in such localities is fruitless. I have, on these occasions,
had to seek it a foot or so deep in the rubbish where I get them,
and even then seldom with success, for it retires to the warmest
place it can find. When there is a dry cold wind, and during the
months of November, December, and January, it is particularly
scarce. My friend at Theale has been very successful in finding
this creature. Beneath boards and old castaway bungs of casks,
in one of his cellars, he frequently makes a capture, and says these
localities are favourite places of resort for the species.

I have not yet had an opportunity of comparing the developement
of the young with that of the juvenile Chelifers, for the difficulty
of keeping specimens of either genus alive, in confinement, for a
few days, is even greater than that of finding them at first.

The name " Book Scorpions" is applied to these creatures some-
what vaguely in the " Micrographic Dictionary." I say vaguely,

ON rSEUDO-SCoiinoNES. 13

"because it is by no means clear Avliicli genus is meant. We are
told there, however, that Pseudo- Scorpions breathe by means of
tracheaj. These are seen in Ohisium without difficulty, if the
medium in which the creature is immersed be glycerine.

In Wood's " Natural History," a few lines are devoted to Pseudo-
Scorpions. He says, vol. III., page 680 : — "On the same illustra-
tion with the Galeodes, is seen a magnified representation of the
curious Chelifer, a little arachnoid, very much resembling a tiny
scorpion without a tail. The body is flattened, and the palpi are
much elongated, and furnished with a regidar claw at the end, like
that of a true scorpion. The Chelifer is an active little being, run-
ning with much speed, and directing its course backward, for-
ward, or sidewise, with equal ease. It lives in dark places in
houses, between books in libraries, and similar localities, preferring
those, however, that are rather damp. It does no harm, however,
to the books, but rather confers a favour on their owners, feed-
ing on wood lice, mites, and other beings that work sad mischief
in a library. Its general colour is a brownish red, and it is remark-
able that the palpi are twice as long as the whole body. This, as
well as an allied genus called Obisium, is found in England. The
two genera can be easily distinguished by the cephalothorax ; that
of Chelifer being parted by a cross groove, and that of Obisium
being entire."

In Mrs. Lane Clarke's book — " Objects for the Microscope"* —
Chelifer is treated of in the chapter on Parasites, but her remarks
apply to some species that attacks flies — probably the creature
alluded to and figured by Mr. Bailey in " Science Gossip," vol. I.,
page 227, and which was afterwards named as Chelifer Cancroides
(page 228).

Within the last fortnight, I found under an earthenware pan a
creature which at first I took to be an Obisimn of unusual size. It
had a similar elongated body, and very large falces, but further
examination showed that it possessed two conspicuous eyes and
the nippers of a Chelifer, and its cephalothorax was divided by a
cross groove, like a Chelifer ; consequently it must be regarded as
such, and not an Obisium. It difiered considerably, however, from
the Chelifers from Tlieale, being much longer in the body, and the
curious compound bristles which that species possesses are here

* A descriptive catalogue of the most Instructive and Beautiful objects for the
Microscope, by L. Lane Clarke. Routledge and Co., London.

14 S. J. MC'INTIEE

replaced by ordinary simple hairs. The size of the falces enabled
me to examine them minutely, and I find that each mandible is
furnished with a comb-like fringe, free at the outer extremity, but
attached to the mandible at the other, and lying along the side of
it. Probably the structure of the falces in the other two Pseudo-
Scorpions resembles that in the species I am alluding to, but I hare
experienced great difficulty in examining those organs, and in
mounting the creatures jDermanently I have been quite beaten. The
ordinary process, by means of balsam, seems to me to alter the
general character too much, besides obliterating the more delicate
structures; and glycerine, Deane's gelatine medium, and simple
salt and water, cause the softer portions to shrink so much as to
disguise the true character almost in an equal degree.

After the usual vote of thanks to the author of the above paper,
Mr. M. C. Cooke spoke on the subject as follows: —

Mr. M. C. Cooke— I am sure that we have all been much
interested in Mr. Mclntire's paper, and thank him for bringing
before us a subject like the present, about which so little is known.
As far as my own experience extends, there are, I believe, fifty-
four species of Chelifers already described, and the majority figured.
Of these I took the opportunity of ascertaining a few facts to lay
before the Club, as a kind of appendix to the paper we have just
listened to. Out of the fifty-four species named, thirty-nine are
European, one belongs \o the Asiatic Islands, none to continental
Asia, three to North America, four to South America, and seven to
Africa. Thus the old world has forty-seven, and the new world
seven. Of the European species nine are found in Great Britain,
and, as far as at present ascertained, three of these are peculiar to
the British Islands. Linnjeus would appear to have been acquainted
with only two species, which he calls Phalanghmi cancroideSj and
Phalanf/inm acaroides. In this country they have received but
little attention. Except Leach, no British Zoologist has studied
them. It is true that in the early volumes of Loudon's Magazine
of Natural History occur several communications to the editor,
concerning certain curious little creatures found attached to flies
(vols, iii., iv., and vii.), which ultimately are declaimed to be
Chelifers; and amongst these writers of forty years ago all are

ON PSEUDO-SCOr.PIONES. 15

called CheUfer cancroides, -wliicli appears to be a kind of " stock"
name for any Chelifer. One is figured in Hooke's Micrograpliia
(pi. xxiii., fig. 2), in Albin's Sjdders (pi. xxxvi., fig. 181), in
Sliaw's Miscellany, and in Donovan's British Insects (pi. 215).
The best figure of Chelifer cancroides is in the old German work of
Roesel, who regarded it as a scorpion. The learned De Geer in-
stituted the genus Chelifer, but it was left for our own countryman,
Leach, to point out the distinction in the eyes and to separate the
creatures into two genera, under the names of Chelifer awl Obisium.
In his '' Miscellany" Leach figures and describes eight species as
British^ which, with the typical Chelifer cancroides, are ail that we
yet know as inhabiting these islands, for nothing has been added
since Dr. Leach's time, so there is a good field for investigation,
and we hope that Mr. Mclntire will follow it. For the benefit of
those Avho may be desirous of making Chelifers their study, I may
add that they will find the necessary information in Walckenaer's
Apteres (vols. iii. and iv.), Koch's Crustaceen and Myriapodeen
(with figures), Hahn and Koch's " Die Arachniden" (vol. x.), and
the 27th volume of the first series of the Annales des Sciences
Naturelles. The majority of species will be found figured in these
works. It cannot be too often impressed upou young microscopists
how essential it is that objects should be correctly and fully named.
The leg of a spider, the wing case of a beetle, or the tongue of a
fly, should not find a place in any sane person's cabinet, unless
what spider, what beetle, or what fly has been first ascertained.

16

On a New Low-Power Object Glass for the Microscope,

By John Bockett.

{Read Nov. 22nd, 1867.)

It is only recently that our first-class opticians, after surmounting
tlie almost insuperable difficulties attending the manufacture of
the highest powers in connection with the microscope, have, as it
were, now turned their attention to the construction of compound
glasses of low angular aperture, but still possessing the great
desideratum, absolute sharj)ness. It is very desirable to possess
lenses capable of resolving certain objects into sti'ise and dots ; but
with due regard to the skill of the manufacturer, and the ability
of the manipulator of the microscope, the bulk of real work
is always done with medium and low powers. The plan
adopted in Germany, as seen in their wonderfully illus-
trated books on Botany, &c., deservedly ought to be followed :
they delineate the object as absolutely seen, and then pro-
ceed to show its structure and parts, as magnified with
various powers. Let us, therefore, begin with the whole, and
then analyse it with our high powers. That all who use the in-
strument will assert that this is the plan in vogue, I am prepared to
admit ; but it is to be feared that in the first place we begin our
story in the middle, and not at the beginning, and, in fact, with
good excuse : inasmuch, as a complete set of good objectives costs
a veiy large sum of money. Hitherto the range of low powers for
the microscope has been somewhat limited, the 2-inch, as a rule, in
comiection with 1-inch and two-thirds of an inch, being the general
standard; the 3-inch is of modem date, but has been found to be
an invaluable glass. Although the 3 -inch, with the first eye-piece,
magnifies only 12 or 13 diameters, it still became necessary to have
an objective even of lower power than this — say, of 8 or 9 diameters
— so that the whole of a beetle, flower, shell, or large section of
wood, could be seen in its entirety. This desideratum has just
been produced by Mr. Ross, of Wigmore Street, Cavendish Square,
and is termed by that eminent optician a 4-inch object glass. It
may be argued by some that a lens of such low power is really of
veiy little use, and, in point of fact, very little needed, seeing that
a hand-glass, or pocket magnifier, will enable a general view to be
obtained of all moderately sized objects.

JOHN BOCKETT ON A NEW LOW-rOJVER OBJECT GLASS. 17

When, ho-wever, this statement is considered carefully, it will be
seen that it requires very little refutation. No hand-glass of
simple construction can give that definition and freedom from
distortion which a lens constructed upon the usual principle upon
which microscope objectives are made affords. With the formei",
both hands are occupied; to say nothing of the unsteadiness,
it is also impossible that the illumination of the object can be per-
fect, added to which the nou-achromaticity and spherical aberration
exercises anything but a good effect upon the eyes ; neither can
the polariscope be used, nor can we obtain the effect of dark ground
illumination. To sum all up, the observer simply makes the best
use of a makeshift instrument, and is compelled, to a certain degree,
to guess at details he never could have seen. On the other hand,
with the new glass we have the sharpest definition ; it is, of course,
attached to the ordinary instrument, and has, therefore a solid stand,
free from all tremor. The illumination, whether for opaque or
transparent objects, is completely under control ; it is achromatic,
and pecuharly adapted for the binocular ; and its applicability to
Botany, Mineralogy, and Natural History, &c., &c., cannot be
questioned. It certainly requires a very long bar, on account of its
focus ; but the difficulty is easily overcome, by adapting to the top
of the bar a lengthening piece, which is not unsightly, soon fitted,
and inexpensive. Upon bringing the glass to bear upon all the
tests alluded to by Dr. Carpenter (page 192 of his last edition of
the Eevelations of the Microscope) specially pointed out for low
power objectives, one and all are beautifully shown. For Aquaria,
owing to its depth of focus, it is possible to see throiigh a con-
siderable thickness of water, and as small tanks, if not of consider-
able size, can now be made available, doubtless the study both of
animalcules and minute vegetation will be much enhanced. I will
only add that the recent small travelling microscopes take the power
without any alteration. The amplification, with the vai'ious eye-
pieces, will be found as under : —

With the A, 9 ; B, 15 ; C, 26; D, 42; E, 64; F, 86.
Some of the new glasses are on the tables, so as to afford the
members of our Club every opportunity of judging for them-
selves.

18

RECOLLECTIONS OF OUR MEETINGS.

Microscopic Photography. — The subject of microscopic de-
lineation is one which has more or less occupied the attention of
every one who has used the microscope for observation. We have
often envied the facility with which some observers can delineate so
vividly what they see, and when reading a communication on any
branch of our science, we instinctively turn to the illustrations (if
there be any) as often affording a readier means of arriving at what
the author of the papers desires to convey than his written words.
And especially the medical student, in his investigation of animal
structure in health and disease, often desires to preserve for future
study and comparison something which shall be a true and faithful
representation of that which he sees upon the stage of his micros-
cope. If clever in the use of the pencil he straightway, with some
expenditure of time and trouble, produces a sketch of more or less
accuracy, and preserves it, either for reference or publication. But
still, clever though the artist may be, careful though may be the
observation, and apparently truthful the outline and details, there
is still some doubt whether the draughtsman has not drawn more or
less than exists in fact ; and it is by no means improbable that
subsequent observers may fail even to recognise the likeness to the
particular object or structure of which it professes to be a representa-
tion. Many engravings in our published works are difficult to
recognise, and it is a matter of interest in microscopic circles to
seek for specimens which shall be similar in appearance to a certain
wood-cut or engraving in some particular work. But if the object
could be made to delineate itself, if the various details could be
made to impress themselves permanently on some medium which
could be examined at leisure and preserved indefinitely, a great deal
of uncertainty and erroneous generalisation might be avoided.

Every one who has dabbled in photography, and at the same time
possesses a microscope, must at some time or other have been im-
pressed with the extreme sxiitability of the process for producing
precisely what was wanted in the delineation of minute objects.
Pictures can be produced by this process so extremely minute in

RECOLLECTIONS OF OUK MEETINGS. 19i

detail as absolutely to require a hanl surface and the use of a
maguifyiug power to bring them out propei-ly. Many have ex-
perimented in this direction, but foremost amongst them all must
be reckoned Dr. Maddox, whose exquisite photographs of microscopic
objects have far surpassed anything that has been published in
Europe. Dr. Maddox favoured us with a visit at one of our recent
meetings, and exhibited there some of his latest productions, which
were most admirable, both in pictorial effect and faithful represent-
ation. Some of these pictures were of the mai'kings on diatoms,
such as Pleurosigma Formosum and P. Angulatum magnified 3,000
diameters, and were exhibited as tending to solve the question as to
whether they are in relief or not. For this purpose Dr. Maddox
views them stereoscopically, when most certainly this effect of relief
is produced. Some stereo -photographs of Pleurosigma Formosum
exhibited by him, when placed under the stereoscope, showed the
dots as hemispheres standing in closer proximity to the eye than the
surface of the frustule upon, which they appeared to be set ; in fact,
presenting the appearance uf so many minute ivory balls. Attention
was also drawn to the fact that some of the diatomaceous discs, when
viewed stereoscopically, are seen to be composed of two surfaces, au
outer and an inner one, with a certain amount of structure between
them. Mr. Bockett drew attention to an experiment of Mr. Beck's,
in which that gentleman photographed a portion of a glass tumbler,
on which the pattern was produced by hemispherical protuberances
" like so many plano-convex lenses on a convex surface," in which
photographs there was a tendency to exhibit these hemispheres as
hexagonals, according as their tops or bases were focussed by the
lens.

We very much fear, however, that the stereoscopic test is hardly
reliable. Very considerable apparent moditioatious of form are pro-
duced by varying the condition of binocular vision. Apart from
the fact that if you change the pictures from one side to the other
you will find the relief become depression, and vice-versd, it will be
observed that if a perfectly flat picture be examined by a pair of short
focussed stereoscopic lenses it will appear to stand up precisely like
the field of a binocular microscope. Take a negative of a black disc
for instance, and print two copies of it either on glass or paper, place
the two side by side in a stereoscope, and although pictures of a
flat surface the effect will be that of a convex one.

Apart from these considerations altogether, there can be no doubt

c 2

20 RECOLLECTIONS OF OUR MEETINGS.

that Dr. Macldox deserves well of the scientific world for his arduous
labours in delineating minute forms. Many of his beautiful pro-
ductions may yet be seen at Mr. How's, Foster Lane, Cheapside,
although we very much regret to say that, considered commercially,
they have not met with the success which they merit. More than this,
after seven years' labour in one direction this zealous worker finds
his sight is injured, and for want of the successful publication of his
works is compelled to give up the further pursuit of his experiments,
without having realised that pecuniary reward Avhich his unwearied
efforts so eminently deserve.

QIIEKETT MICEOSCOPICAL CLrB.

OCTOBER 25th, 1867.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The Secretary announced the following donations to the Club : —

" The Popular Science Review," from the publisher ; " Science Gossip,"
from the editor : Hogg " On the Microscope," new edition, by W. Curties ;
and the "Naturalists' Circular, ' from the editor.

The thanks of the members were ordered to be communicated to the respec-
tive donors.

The following gentlemen, were proposed for membership in the usual form : —
Mr. John Sandford, Mr. Wm. Henry Golding, Mr. E. Williams, Mr. Francis
"W. Blake, Mr. A. F, Tarner, Mr. Frank H. Ward.

The names of the nine gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were
then balloted for, and they were declared duly elected m^mbers of the
Club.

The President announced that the Committee had decided on publishing
the proceedings of the Club quarterly, under the editorship of Mr. \Y. Hislop.
A copy would be forwarded free to eacli member.

Mr. W. W. Reeves asked those gentlemen who had taken part in the
excursions of the Club during the summer to send in a list of things which
they liad seen and collected, in order that a record of them might be kept.
Members who knew of good stations for collecting, would also greatly assist

21

the excursion committee if they would send them a list of such places for the
sake of varying and extending the field of research.

Mr. Mclutire read a paper " On Pseudo-seorpioiies." Seepage 8.

The Secretary read a paper by llr. Charles Nicholson, M.A., of Ediuburgli,
" On Object Glasses for the Microscope."

The object of the writer was chiefly to point out the desirability of limiting
the number contained in a set of object glasses as much as possible, and at
the same time to obtain the necessary magnifying powers with the first and
second eye-pieces. He endeavoured to show that eight powers would '• span"
the whole present power of the microscope by the following table. Eye-
piece A is taken as having a magnifying power of 5 ; B, of 7^ ; C, 10 ;
D, 12i ; and E, 15.

Object

Glass

No.

Focus

in lOOths of

an inch.

Nearest
made.

A

B

C

D

E

1

2.56

2 or 3 inch

18

28

37

56

75

2

1-28

1^ or 1 inch

37

56

75

112

150

3

.64

2-3rd8

75

112

150

225

300

4

.32

4-lOths

150

225

300

450

600

5

.16

l-6th

300

450

600

900

1250

6

.08

1.12th

600

900

1250

1850

2500

7

-04

l-25th

1250

1850

2500

3750

5000

8

.02

l-50th

2500

3700

5000

7500

10000

The President announced that lists were open for the receipt of the names
of members desirous of joining the three classes, namely, Mr. Suffolk's for
Microscopic Manipulation, Mr. Cooke's for studying Microscopic Fungi, and
Dr. Braithwaite's for studying the Mosses.

It was announced that at the next meeting Mr. Burgess would read the
first of two papers on " Wools, microscopically and commercially considered."

NOV. 22nd , 1867.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and signed by the Chair-
man.

The Secretary announced the following donations to the club : — Two slides
from Mr. Mclutire : five slides from Mr. Geo . Potter ; one slide from Mr.
Moginie ; a large engraving of Daphnia Pulex from Mr. Curties ; the
'* Naturalists' Circular," from the Editor ; '• Science Gossip," from the pub-
li.-her ; and the last new edition of " How to work with the Microscope,"
from Dr. Beale.

The thanks of the members were ordered to be presented to the respec-
tive donors.

The following names of gentlemen proposed for membership were read by

* 22

the Secretary . — Mr. Henry Symons, Mr. Jolm W. Baiiey, Mr. Charles Si
Bentley, Mr. Alfred Martiuelli, Mr. George F. Smith, Dr. Adam Bealy, Mr.
H. B. Preston, Mr. Charles E. Osborne, Mr. Edward T. Draper, Mr. William
C. Chapman, Mr. Frederick Oxley.

The names of the eight new members proposed at the last meeting, were-
then balloted for, and they were declared duly elected.

Mr. Burgess then read the first part of a paper entitled '' Wools, com-
mercially and Microscopically considered." (Seethe next number). The paper
was illustrated by a large collection of samples of wool, both in its natural
state and manufactured.

The thanks of the meeting, were presented ta Mr, Bm-gess^ for the first
part of bis paper.

Mr. Bockett then read a paper " On a new low power object glass." (See
page 16), for the purpose of introducing a new 4-mch objective by Mr.
Thomas Boss. The performance of the instrument was exemplified on a
variety of objects by means of several microscopes, and was pronounced
by all observers to be highly satisfactory.

The president having announced that at the next meeting Mr. Burgess
would take up the Microscopic portion of his dissertation on Wools,

The proceedings terminated.

Hock Sections for the Microscope. — The rock sections may be prepared for
the microscope as follows : — A fragment, from a quarter to three-quarters of
an inch square, and of convenient thickness, is chipped ofi' the rock specimen
in the direction of the required section, and gi-ound down upon an iron or
pewter plate in a lapidary's lathe with emery, until a perfectly flat surface
is obtained. This surface is then woi'ked down still finer by hand
on a slab of black marble with less coarse emery, then upon a Water
of Ayr stone with water alone, and lastly finished by hand with
water on a slab of black marble. By these means the surface acquires a
sufficient polish without being contaminated with rouge or other polishing
powder or oil, as is sometimes the case with purchased sections of i-ocks.
This side of the rock is now cemented by Canada Balsam to a small piece
of plate glass about I5 inch square and f in. thick, which serves as a handle
when grinding the other side of the emery plate as before ; this grinding is
continued until the section is so thin as to be in danger of breaking up from
the roughness of the motion, upon which it is completed by further grinding
with emery by hand on marble, and finished first upon Water of Ayr stone
with water, and afterwards ui^on black marble as above described. The
section is now removed from the plate glass and mounted in Canada Balsam
on a slide, covering its upper surface with thin glass as usual, Tiie thickness
to which such sections need be reduced is, of course, entirely dependent upon
the transparency of the rock constituents, and is commonly from 1-lOOth to
1-lOOOth of an inch. Thin splinters of rock and powdered fragments mounted
in Canada Balsam vaay also be examined with advantage, but cannot replace
the above described sections. — Foji?ular Science Review.

THE JOIJENAL

OF THE

^itchett piaostopttal ChtL

The Wools of Commerce Commercially and Microscopically
Considered. By N. Burgess.

{Read November 22?ic?, and December 27th, 1867.)
[Abstract.]

Part I.

The first part of the paper was limited to the commercial aspect of wool. True
wool was stated to be confined to the several varieties of sheep ; and the sub-
ject was divided as follows:— Geographical Distributionof Sheep;— Varieties of
Breed;— Eise and Progress of Australia the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, and
the Eiver Plate,as wool producing colonies;— an analysis of the varieties of fleece
produced in Great Britain, and an account of the method of converting wool
into cloth. It was illustrated by seventy-nine specimens of special character,
together uith samples in various stages of manufacture.

Part II.

In the first part of tliis paper attention was called to many facts
relating to wools from various breeds of the animal which produces
that material. It was stated that all the non-divergent forms of
sheep might have had one common origin, and therefore that all
the wools would have essentially the same primary structure, which
would be more or less modified where climate or soil have produced
alterations in the fibre. The microscope shews us that an ap-
parently solid hair is not really so. In a transverse section of that
of the elephant, for instance, it is apparent at once that the hair, like
a section of a tree, has internal perforations, in which probably
similar functions in life are carried on. In a section of the human
hair we have a form which some have described as a hollow tube,
resembling a quill or straw, the interior being altogether hollow ;

D

24 N. BURGESR ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE.

but if put under polarized light it will be seen that the internal part
is filled with a granular material, which occupies the whole of the
inside, with the exception of the extreme centre, where a sort of
central pith is just observable, probably intended to be a channel
to admit supplies of nourishment, or coloring matter to sustain it
in a state of health. I am of opinion that this will be the rule in
all kinds of hair, and that each genera of animals will have its own
peculiar form, both internally and externally.

In the year 1664, the learned Dr. Hooke brought before the Royal
Society a paper upon hairs, and in the " Micrographia," pub-
lished two years afterwards, are several figures of hairs in
section. He combats the idea that hairs were hollow, but seems
to fall into as great an error on the other side by concluding that
hairs were mostly solid. Hooke' s figures are good on the whole,
and have been often copied in this country, and on the continent.
About thirty years after this, Leeuwenhoek took up the subject of
hair and wool, and in his select works are to be found figures of
human hair and of wool ; but his figures of wool are very bad,
and prove that he had no knowledge of its microscopic form.

Henry Baker, F.R.S., in the year 1742, read a short paper on
hairs before the Royal Society. In his books, published in 1744,
he devotes two pages to the subject ; but he classes human hair
■with that of horses, sheep, and hogs, and describes it as composed
of long tubular fibres, or smaller hairs, encompassed with a rind, or
bark ; but separates the quills of the porcupine or hedgehog from
this class, as containing a whitish pith, in a star-like form.

We may conclude that a microscopic investigation of wool belongs
to the present century, and the results which have been published
are not accurate; neither Dr. Quekett, Dr. Beale, Dr. Carpenter,
or Dr. Jabez Hogg allude to the subject.

Dr. Wythes, in a work called " The Microscopist," published in
Philadelj^hia, takes up the prevailing notion that the imbricated
scales on the external surface of each fibre are the cause of wool
possessing its well-known felting property. In the " Penny Cyclo-
paedia," under "Sheep," Vol. XXI., p. 356, is a very good article on
wool and sheep ; but the writer has fallen into the same mistake as
to the " felting process."

After speaking of the "elasticity," or yielding character of the
wool, and of its " pliability " and " softness," " without which no
manufacture of it can be carried to any degree of perfection," he

N. BURGESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE. 25

alludes to its "felting" property. He states tliat "the fibre, ex-
amined under a powerful microscope, appears like a continuous
vegetable growth, from which there are sprouting, and all tending
one way from the root to the other extremity, numerous leaves, as-
suming the appearance of calices or cups, and each terminating in a
sharp point. It is easy to conceive how readily one of these fibres
will move in a direction from the root to the point, while its retrac-
tion must be exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. It was a fibre
of merino wool that was first submitted to microscopic observation,
and the number of these serrations or projections counted. There
were 2,400 in the space of an inch. A fibre of Saxon * wool, finer
than that of the merino, and of acknowledged superior felting
quality, was substituted. There were 2,720 serrations." South-
down is stated to have 2,080, and Leicester wool of less felting pro-
perty, 1,860 serrations in the inch.

The writer further states " There can be no doubt as to the
structure of the woolly fibre. It consists of a central stem, or stalk;
from these spring at diff'erent distances circles of leaf-shaped pro-
jections, possessing a certain degree of resistance, or of entanglement
with other fibres, in proportion as these circles are multiplied, and
they project from the stalk. They are sharper and more numerous
in the ' felting ' wools, and in proportion as the * felting ' property
exists. They are connected with, or it may be confidently asserted
they give to the wool the power of ' felting,' and regulate the degree
in which that power is possessed."

P. H. Gosse, in his " Evenings at the Microscope," gives a
description of wool similar to the above.

The Hon. Mrs. Ward gives a fair illustration of wool, and shews
no serrations on the edge.

Dr. Lankester, in his '< Uses of Animals," treats of the subject,
but admits his ignorance ol' technical terms. The term " picked
tegg," which he does not understand, refers to a fine kind, also
called " picklock," sorted oat of a tegg fleece, a " tegg" fleece being
the first fleece of mature growth cut from a sheep not previously
shorn. In his figures of wool, Nos. 7, 8, 9, and 15, Dr. Lankester
gives illustrations of Spanish merino. Southdown, Leicester, and
finest Spanish, which are very well done, but do not throw any
light on the subject. There is no scale of magnification given, and

* Saocon wool is now the only known living type of the original merino sheep
of Spain. ^*

D 2

26 N. BURGKSS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE.

the letter-press cannot be reconciled with the engravings. Fig. 16
is said to be East Indian wool, but is not correct, the representa-
tion being that of " Kemp " hair, which, although taken from the
same animal, is not fine wool, but a coarser, longer fibre which often
overlies the softer and more valuable wool.

Mr. Youatt's work on " The 8heep" is that of a man who is evi-
dently well posted in his subject ; and I can almost suppose that
the article in the " Penny Cyclopaedia," already quoted, was written
by the same person. Mr. Youatt considers himself to have been the
first to discover the serrations on the edge of the wool fibre, and
hence to have been the discoverer of the true secret of the felting
property which wool possesses. He tells us that on the 7th of
February, 1835, he, in company with five gentlemen, of whom Mr.
Powell, the optician, was one, first obtained a view of the hitherto
supposed serrations on the edge of the wool fibre, and was the first
to make that fact known to the world. He also expresses the
opinion that this serrated edge, together with the curly nature of
the fibre, produce the " felting property of the wool." He then gives
a series of drawings of twenty-four kinds seen as opaque objects,
and twenty-seven by transmitted light.

But I object to the serration theory most emphatically, and I
cannot beHeve that in one instance out of the fifty-one figures the
object is faithfully drawn. I cannot account for this want of
truthfulness in the figures ; but I leave the members to compare
nine of Mr. Youatt's figures, copied on a large scale, with the fibre
itself as seen under the microscope. Notwithstanding this deficiency
in the microscopic i)art of the work, I believe it to be the best on
sheep and wool ever pubhshed in any country.

The result of this examination of the literature of the subject is
unsatisfactory, but to the first president of the Quekett Microscopic
Club belongs the credit of the best figure of sheep's wool yet pub-
lished.

To the Hon. Mrs. Ward and Mr. P. H. Gosse I must award the
second place. Mrs. Ward's figure is too regular and cylindrical
in appearance ; but the scales are most correct. Mr. Gosse gives
the irregular outline of the edge much better, but fails in accuracy
in the imbricate form of the scales.

r propose to deal with the fibres of wool under three different
heads— first, its ordinary form of growth; secondly, its external
form and structure ; thirdly, its internal structure.

N. BDRGESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE. 27

First. Its ordinary form of growth. The quality of the wool
varies very much in dilfereut parts of the same animal. In a sheep
of pure Merino breed the back presents a close, dense mass, it a
small portion of this be carefully cut off next the skin, it will ap-
pear like the samples in the case labelled " Saxon wooL" If this
be carefully examined, it will be seen to possess a large number of
curves arranges in symmetrical order, from the root to the apex of
the staple.

The finest wool in the unwashed condition (or in " the grease"),
has 30 of these curves to the inch ; the others, most of which are
from rams, have 23 or 24, and the curves are very close and um-
form in tbeir arrangement. Among the samples of " "Wools of
Great Britain" is one from a Southdown wether fleece. In this
there are but thirteen curves to the inch, and the fibre is much
coarser; the Saxon being ygV^ ^^ an inch, and the Southdown
,j-^ of an ineh in diameter. A " tegg" or " hoggett" of Southdown
breed is still coarser, giving 11 curves to the inch. Lower again in
the quality and number of curves is the Irish hogg wool, with only
six curves to the inch, while the Lincoln gives but two curves in
the same space, and lowest of all is the Northumberland, with
two curves in one inch and a quarter.

If, now, a fibre be taken from the Merino and another from
the Lincoln, and be laid side by side, the relative proportion of
their curves will be as 15 to 1. If a number of these fibres were
taken, each sort separate, it would be seen that the amount of
entanglement between the fibres would be 15 times greater in one
case than in the other. Suppose that instead of their natural form
they are laid parallel to each other in a straight line by machineiy,
each fibre has a natural tendency to regain its original position.
Suppose the now parallel fibres are twisted into a yarn and then
woven, and the warp is strained tight in the loom, many of the
loose threads having been stuck down in the sizing process, it
is evident that in this condition all the fibres are in a state of
unnatural tension until they come out of the loom in the form
of cloth.

All external tension is now removed in order for the next or
" felting" process ; the loose fibres being released, the cloth being
saturated with moisture, the whole has to undergo a process of
heavy thumping, duiing which each fibre^has a pressure applied,
first in one place, then in another. I believe that each fibre at

28 N. BURGESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMEUCE.

every stroke is doiug its utmost to regain the curved condition ;
and as it does so the cloth contracts and becomes thicker. This
thickening is in proportion as the fibres of the wool have resumed
their curved form from the temporary parallel condition. This, and
this alone, in my opinion, is the true cause of the felting process.
I am prepared at any time to say whether a wool will or will
not felt, without the use of the microscope and the tedious pro-
cess of counting the serrations.

It is well known to our cloth manufacturers that " skm" wool,
or wool cut after death, felts better than if cut from a living
animal. Some may ask how is that to be accounted for ? I answer
that in death some parts of the animal are distended and others
contracted, and this alteration being communicated to the fibrous
covering, there would be more room for the contraction of the
fibres in the process of manufacture than in those taken off while in
the living state. " Skin" wool is sometimes taken off with lime,
or sometimes by causing an incipient state of decomposition, when
the wool separates from the sldn ; but other causes are at work
which are not here discussed.

Lord Somerville considered the " yolk," which is an animal
secretion of a greasy nature, to be the cause of " felting " being
much found in Spanish Merinos. " Yolk " and the curves I have
described, always go together. The pure Merinos contain a large
amount of "yolk," as well as many curves, but the "yolk" is
washed out, while the curves remain.

But as to serrations: I object to the word "serra," a saw; there
is no resemblance to the teeth of a saw. " Imbricated " is another
term, which is probably as good as you can get, meaning a some-
thing which overlaps something else. Mr. Youatt thinks that
these so-called serrations act with the carves in producing "felt-
ing," while others attribute all the "felting" to these ieeih ! Now,
if these " teeth " do this work, or do about an equal part of it,
what is their action ? The " teeth " could not produce " felting "
if all were lying in the same direction ; they would produce just
the contrary effect. Let us suppose that through the whole fabric
every other fibre was lying in an opposite direction to its neighbour,
and the " teeth " entangled in contrary directions. The result
would be the opposite of that supposed, for each fibre would pull in
contrary directions. For illustration : suppose a raihvay train has
an engine of equal power at each end, and both pulling the opposite

N. BDRQESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE. 29

way, with equal force, the tvahi wouhl be stationary, but every
carriage in it wouhi be as wide apart as possible— the very opposite
of the principle of " felting," which is drawing or bending to-
gcther. My curve theory is like putting the two engines to push the
train along, and to close the carriages together.

The second point is the external form and structure of the
wool.

The form is difficult to describe, being similar in character, but
diverse in details — lilie the bark of a tree, having a generic form,
but varying in individual species. In twenty-six different sorts, I
have found no general difference, except in two samples of
Sfax, or IMalta wool. These were very different to all the
others, and will form subjects for further examination. If the
" serration" or " imbrication " dogma were correct, we should in
these cases have a fibre that would felt better than any other, as
they are more imbricated than any others. On the contrary, they
hold about the lowest power of " felting " of any kind possessing
the same quality of fibre.

In the twenty-six Sorts examinedl found great variation in the size
or thickness of the fibres, or in the quality. The size of the fibre has
a great deal to do with the imbrications upon its surface. Thus, one
fibre having twice the diameter of the other, if the number of im-
brications was the same in a given space on both, the coarsest would
relatively possess twice the amount of imbrication in proportion to
the other.

Wool generally assumes the form of a pointed fibre of a cylin-
drical character, of various thickness, and presenting a rough out-
line when viewed in profile ; but the pointed fibre only belongs to
the lamb or tegg, for after an animal is once shorn, the pointed
form disappears. I am not aware that this particular structure has
ever before been described, and it is somewhat difficult to show it, in
consequence of the fibre becoming injured.

Specimens as existing in lamb's wool are shewn, and also some
of East Lidia wool exliibiting a flattened form, but whether natural
or owing to pressure in packing, I cannot say.

Now, as to the nature and mode of growth of wool. In my
first paper I stated that wool was distinct from hair, considered
commercially, but physiologically they are identical. Our best
writers agree that hair or wool is the epidermis in a state of meta-
morphosis, and though the form is changed,the nature of the material
remains the same.

30 N. BURGESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE.

Hence hair, wool, the nails of the fingers, the claws of birds, and
the horns and hoofs of animals are identical in substance. A friend
of mine, while exploring the Zulu country, in Africa, found a
weathered specimen of the horn of rhinocei'os, which curiously il-
lustrates this point. It was thirty inches long, and six inches in
diameter at the base. The tip was so disintegrated as to resemble
a tuft of bristles mixed with hairs.

I am of opinion, with respect to the growth of avooI, that as soon
as the point of the fibre has protruded through the skin of the ani-
mal, a series of growths takes place, a small part of the epidermis
is converted into wool, and then a rest ensues. One side grows
faster than another, whence probably the curly form of the fibre.
When another growth takes place, another ring is added, the new
growth pushing up the hair from below, and so adding to its
length; this process is relocated, varying as to the length,
straightness, and girth of the joints, and possibly with a variation in
the thickness of the cylindrical portion of the fibre. The differ-
ence would, of course, depend on the physical condition of the
animal, and the character of the food, which sometimes so acts on
the fibre that a staple will break in two at a certain part, just as
though it were scorched, probably through the epidermal wall being
thinner at that part

These alternations of growth and rest produce that form on the
external coat of the fibre, which has been so unscientifically called
"serrated." These points, it must be observed, are not at right
angles with the edge of the fibre, but oblique, some at one angle
some at another, some confluent, others divergent, some raised
above the surface, while others show scarcely any elevation at all.

Next, as to the size of fibres.

The size of the fibre is very irregular, scarcely any two from
the staple being found alike, and each varying in its own length.
In a fibre of Southdown wool, a comparatively miiform species, I
have found the size to vary in ^\^ of an inch as much as one fifth
of the whole diameter.

I may here explain that the term staple refers to the small tufts,
somewhat like a wheatsheaf in form, in which the wool grows on
the animal.

The finest Saxon wool I have ever seen, gave a remarkable re-
sult on being measured. Five hairs in one staple were selected ; the
finest gave the extremely small diameter of ^ ^c ^g of an inch, or y|^
of a millimetre, while another fibre lying by its side measured the

N. BURGESS ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE. 31

-YTT^ of an inch, or yL of a millimetre. The mean of the fine
fibres gave ^rj:^ of an inch, or -Jj^ of a millimetre. Another sam-
ple of Saxony wool gave ^7-5 of an inch, or -^^ of a millimetre.
Among Saxon wools shown " in the grease," two of the fibres were
measured, one being Y5V2 ^f an inch, or -^^ of a millimetre,
and the other xaVo ^^ ^^ ^'^^^' or -jL of a millimetre. Proba-
bly this sample could not be exceeded for beauty or symmetry ;
it was taken from one of Steizer's celebrated ewes.

The Southdown sample shown gives for one fibre -g-^ of an
inch, or the ^^g- of a millimetre, and for another 3^ of an inch,
or -^ of a millimetre. The Lincoln wool gives for one part of
the fibre -^^ of an inch, or Jy of a millimetre; for the other
■54-0 of an inch, or ^t ^^ ^ millimetre, and for the coarsest ^^ or
^ of a millimetre.

In a sample of the " Russian Douskoi," one fibre, measured
in three different places, also gave the same diameters. If
' ' imbrications " go for anything Russian Douskoi should eclipse
every other in the " felting " process ; but here again facts are
dead against that theory.

A fibre of the Northumberland wool, measured in its thinnest
part, gave ^-^ of an inch, or ^ of a millimetre ; and ^^ of
an inch, or ^ of a millimetre at its thickest diameter. These
examples will suffice for showing the relative degrees of size, and
the varieties which occur in the same fibre.

I intended to devote the last part of this paper to the internal
structure of the wool fibre, but I must leave it to another oppor-
tunity, for several reasons. It is a subject which requires time,
special apparatus, and manipulative skill to work out.

I may, however, indicate that some wool fibres, which look like
hollow cylinders, will probably not prove to be so ; some, indeed, I
find to be filled with a transparent substance having a pith-hke
core.

In East India wool there is, at times, a condition intermediate
between the states of " Kemp " and wool, in the interior of the
fibre. In the true " Kemp " this part of the fibre or pith is not
pervious to the dyes used, in the same degree as the other fibres.
In the Douskoi there is sometimes a change in the same hair from
the wool form to the " Kemp," and the same thing has been noticed
by me in the Northumberland sample of wool before you.

I had also proposed to test the action of certain chemical sub-
stances used in the manufacture. Soda ash, for instance, con-

32 N. BDUGES8 ON THE WOOLS OF COMMERCE,

tracts the fibre. Urine is considered the best for cleansing, and in
manufactui-ing districts the operatives often wash their woollens and
flannels in dilute urine, from its known action upon wool and woollens.
The specimens prepared for the microscope have been washed in
benzine, which abstracts the grease.

In my first paper I mentioned the Punjaub wild sheep in the
Zoological Gardens, in reference to the two -fold growth of wool
and a kind of hair besides. This hair is an iuterestmg object under
the microscope ; the scales are very close together, and under some
kinds of illumination are not unlike the hairs of some of the deer
tribe. If " felting " depended on serration, these ought to possess
amazing felting qualities; but they do not " felt," for there are no
curves. This two-fold growth is found in wool from the Crimea.
The fine quality is wool in every respect ; the hair-like growth
intermixed with it is entirely hair as to structure, some very white,
and much like some of the deer. Both " Douskoi " and China
wools also exliibit a tendency to two-fold growth.

On true hair-bearing animals, a two-fold growth exists, but very
diffei-ent to the cases cited, inasmuch as they are both of the same
character. Mrs. White, sister to the late Dr. Quekett, gave me
some hair from a Persian cat, one part of which was soft and long,
and another part much coarser ; but under the microscope the only
dilference was that the coarser kind was rather more opaque.

The fine fur on the vicugna of South America is much like wool,
but the coarser kind is distinct in form and structure. It con-
sists of a thick, flattened fibre, and is somewhat fluted, like the shaft
of a column. The fur and hair of the Polar bear present two
different appearances. The fine growth is like wool, but the
markings are not so close together, and the size is uniform. The
coarser growth is similar to the human hair.

I have only to add that I have not investigated the wool of the
black vai'iety of sheep, and, therefore, cannot say whether the
pigment is internal or external.

I cannot close this paper without expressing my satisfaction at
having done my best to explode an effete theory as to the felting
properties of wool, and if my papers result in putting down one of
our popular errors, my time will not have been mis-spent.

33

On the Hairs of Indian Bats. By M. C Cooke.
(Read January 24iA, 18G8.^

For five-and-twenty years an object has been known to micro-
scopical observers as the " Hair of Indian Bat," and during that
period, if efforts have been made to discover its source, those
efforts have not been crowned with success ; for it is still unknown
what species of bat yields the hairs which are employed as test
objects. Full of hope that this species might be discovered, the
investigations which led to the production of this paper were
undertaken. Facilities occurred for examining the hairs of a large
number of well authenticated species of Indian Cheiroptera, and
the result of this examination forms the subject of the present
commimication .

Before proceeding with the investigation, I may be permitted to
summarise what has been written on the subject, so that it may
be seen how far my observations agree with those of other observers
who have preceded me. Although bats' hair was known to be an
interesting microscopic object thirty or forty years ago, I think
that there is no special mention of the hair of an Lidian bat, or of
any other bat's hair wholly resembling it, until Mr. John Quekett
brought the subject under the notice of the Microscopical Society
of London, on the 20th October, 1841, as recorded in Cooper's
Microscopical Journal (p. 158), and afterwards printed in full in
the Microscopical Transactions (vol. i., p. 58).

As these "Transactions" are not common, and as the observa-
tions there made are of importance in this enquiry, I shall extract
those portions to which I may hereafter allude. After describing
the structure of hair in general, he says : — " Having stated thus
much on the growth of hair, I shall proceed at once to the exami-
nation of that of the bat tribe. Of sixteen species of these animals,
the hairs of which I have examined, all were analogous in struc-
ture to one or other of the forms represented. They are charac-
terized by the shaft presenting at intervals peculiar raised mark-
ings, which are arranged sometimes transversely, at others
obliquely, to the axis of the hair; in some specimens they project
a considerable distance from the general surface, and the true shaft
of the hair appears between them at certain intervals. Having, on

34 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

more than one occasion, failed in pulling the hairs out of the skin
with my fingers, in order to obtain some, a knife was used, and the
hair held firmly between its edge and the thumb. On examination
of these hairs afterwards, it was found that they were altered in
character, the markings on them, which were so peculiar, being de-
stroyed in some parts, and left undisturbed in others ; they ap-
peared as if something had been taken away from them in certain
points. This led me to expect that the curious surfaces which these
hairs present might be owing to a development of scales on their
exterior, and repeated examination has convinced me of the truth
of this supposition. I have since found that by submitting hair to
a scraping process, minute scale-like bodies, tolerably constant, as
far as regards their size and figure, can be procured, so that bats'
hair may be said to consist of a shaft invested with scales, which
are developed to a greater or less degree, and vary in the mode of
their arrangement in the different species of the animal. The sur-
face of that part of the hair nearest the bulb is nearly free from
any trace of scale, but as we proceed towards the apex the scaly
character becomes more evident. In many hairs the scales lie in a
direction at right angles with the shaft, and one scale forms a com-
plete band around the shaft ; in others they run with varying de-
grees of obliquity, giving a true spiral character to the hair, whilst
in many others, scales may be seen in all stages of development.
The larger kind of hairs, such as are procured from the various
species of vampire, are generally of a dark yellow colour, and are
comparatively smooth externally, but exhibit a cellular structure
internally. Many of the scales are not unlike — in shape — those
from the wings of butterflies, but are much more minute, and ex-
hibit no trace of striae on their surfaces ; but those taken from
dark coloured hairs have the colouring matter deposited upon them
in small patches. In some cases they appear to terminate in a
pointed process, like the quill observed in butterflies' scales, and in
others the free margin is serrated. By scraping, many of them wUl
be detached separately, but in some few cases as many as four or
five will be found joined together. In the larger hairs the cellular
structure of the interior, as well as the fibrous character of the
shaft, can be well seen when the scales have been removed.
" As far as my observations have gone, they lead me to believe
that the smaller the hair is in diameter, the more closely packed
are the scales; and it would account at once for some appearances

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BAT , 35

■whicli many hairs present, if it were found that the shaft of the
hair grevv faster than the scales which surround it, and that the
whorls of scales were separated from each other, just as the slides
are in the drawing out of a telescope.

" Since these observations were made, I have been kindly favoured
by Mr. Powell with some hair of a bat from India, the species of
which is at present unknown, in which the view I have entertained
of the nature of bats' hair is beautifully borne out, and if any doubt
had previously existed of the scaly character, I think that it would
at once be banished when these hairs were seen under the micros-
cope. The scales are most remarkably developed, and in some of
the hairs they surround the shaft in a continuous whorl, and with-
out any preparation by scraping, in many places they will be found
to be entirely wanting, whilst in others they are still attached to
the shaft, but out of their proper position."

Dr. Carpenter, in " Tlie Microscope," alludes to the hairs of (jne
of the Indian species of bat in the following words : " It has a set
of whorls of long narrow leaflets (so to speak) arranged at regular
intervals on its stem" (p. 644, fig. 329 c. 1857). It will be
observed that two theories of structure are indicated by these two
observers. Quekett regards the whorls as entire scales or cups,
with an irregular margin, in which we shall hereafter find Mr.
Gosse corroborating him ; whilst Dr. Carpenter alludes to them as
whorls of leaflets, or (as I presume) independent linear scales, in
which Griffith and Henfrey seem to concur. Figures also bear out
this interpretation, for Quekett's original figures show the scales
removed entire, and Carpenter's figure gives the whorled character.
Dr. Hogg in his figure exhibits Dr. Carpenter's theory, and in his
remarks quotes Quekett's, and thus commits himself to both. The
figures given in Quekett's treatise on the microscope are very
different from the original figures, and, as I believe, incorrect. I
may allude to the figure given in Brewster's " Treatise on the
Microscope " (1837), published before Quekett's observations of
the whorled " hair of the bat genius " (pi. xii., fig. 16), which is
remarkably rude, and probably does not indicate the hair of an
exotic species. A similar rough figure is given in Brocklesby's
"Views of the Microscopic World" (New York, 1851), "each
possessing a figure like that which would be formed by a series of
cones, with the points of each inserted into the middle of the base
of another" (p. 126, fig. 206).

"6 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

After alluding to the structure of the hair of English bats, Mr.
Gosse, in his " Evenings with the JVIicroscope," says : " Even this
is far excelled by a species of bat from India. The trumpet-lilve
cups are here very thin and transparent, but very expansive, the
diameter of the lip being, in some parts of the hair, fully thrice as
great as that of the stem itself. The margin of each cup appears
to be undivided, but very irregularly notched and cut. In the
middle portion of the hair, the cups are far more crowded than in
the basal part, more brush-like, and less elegant ; and this structure
is continued to the very extremity, which is not drawn out to so
attenuated a point as the hair of the mouse, though it is of needle-
like sharpness. The trumpet-shaped scales are, it seems, liable to
be removed by accident ; for in these dozen hairs there are several
in which we see one or more cups rubbed off, and in one the stem
is destitute of them for a considerable space. The stem so denuded
closely resembled the basal part of a mouse's hair in its ordinary
condition" (p. 13, figs, ah c. 1859).

In the " Micrographic Dictionary " (pi. xxii., f. 6), is a figure
with the brief remark that it is the hair of " the Indian bat, in
which the scales are grouped in whorls at pretty regular intervals
along the shaft, and project considerably beyond the surface "
(p. 335. 1860).

In Griffiths's " Text Book for the Microscope," the author
writes : " In the hairs of some of the foreign bats, the scales are
whorled, forming very beautiful objects " (p. 118. 1864).

In Willkomm's " Die Wmider des Mikroskops," the figures of
which are, singularly enough, identical with those in Hogg " On
the Microscope," at p. 242 (fig. 144. 1856j, the figure of the hair
of Indian bat is given, without further remarks.

I may remark as a curiosity that, in Fonvielles' " Les Merveilles
du Monde Invisible," the hair of the larva of Anthrenus is figured
as the hair of a bat.

Although doubts have been very freely expressed, whether the
" Hair of Indian bat " is the hair of a bat at all, I think that there
is really no good ground for scepticism ; indeed, the only support
which I conceive that scepticism can receive will be in the produc-
tion of the hair of some other animal more resembling that which
is sold by Topping as " Hair of Indian bat," than any known
s])ecimens of hair derived from an undoubted bat. It must be
borne in mind that the hairs which I exhibit are from animals

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS. 37

wbicli have been preserved, and brushed, and dusted, and subjected
to all kinds of \-icissitudes for twenty or thirty years, whereby,
undoubtedly, their microscopical character has suffered considerably.
A fair allowance should be made for this fact, which is only coun-
terbalanced by their specific identification.

Assuming that the hair in question was that of an Indian bat, I
was led to enquire what species of bats were found in the Indian
Empire, and in this enquiry I was assisted by three catalogues,
which are the only authoritative ones with which I am acquainted.

I. — Dr. J. E. Gray's list of the specimens of the Mammalia in
the collection of the British Museum, dated 1843.

II. — Dr. Horsfield's catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum
of the Hon. East India Company, dated 1851.

III. — Mr. Edward Blyth's catalogue of the MammaHa in the
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta, 1863.

In Dr. Gray's list occur the names of 47 species of Indian bats.
In Dr. Horsfield's catalogue there are enumerated 34 species, and
in Mr. Blyth's catalogue (including desiderata), 73 species. In
one list some species occur which are not found in the others, and
some probably which may be only varieties, but taking them as
they stand, excluding all which are quoted as synonymous, and
accepting those which the authors regard as distinct species, we
have, on a comparison of the three lists, not less than 90 species,
distinbuted amongst 24 genera. Inasmuch as Mr. Blyth's catalogue
is the most recent, and taking into account the advantage he
possessed of residence in India, and of personal examination of
many living species, I am inclined to accept his list as the basis of
my observations.

The 73 species named in Blyth's catalogue are grouped under
24 genera. These include Malayan and other forms not found in
contii^ental India.

The only positive information which could lead to the discovery
of the imknown species was communicated to me in a private letter
addressed by Mr. Jauson, of Exeter, to a friend, from which I am
permitted to quote.

Mr. H. Janson writes : " I have every reason to believe that I
was the means of first introducing this object to the microscopic
world, and thus it was — One of my immediate neighbours (now
many years ago) was an old Indian officer^ named Major Godfrey,
who had lived twenty-five years there, and who had a strong turn

38 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIK8 OF INDIAN BATS.

for natural history. He brought over with him au immense load
of mammalia, hirds, &c. I having told him that the hairs of
various animals were interesting objects for the microscope, he said,
* I'll send you over a lot of them.' Accordingly he sent me a
pinch from a considerable number, on examining which I found
some good things, and some of not much microscopical value ; but
on coming to the hair of the Indian bat I was literally astounded
and exclaimed that I had never seen any hair equal to that. But
to describe the bat itself, which I have had in my hand ; it was not
larger than the common English bat, but was remarkable for the
length of its tail, which was, I should think, full three inches long,
and was known in India as the long tailed bat. I sent a specimen
to Mr. Powell (long before his union with Mr. Lealand), and he
said he had never seen anything like it before."

It is scarcely necessary to remind you of the structure of or-
dinary hair, of which human hair may be taken as an example. It
consists usually of a medulla or central pith, surrounded by a cortex
and enclosed in an epidermis, the outer cuticle of which consists of
irregular transparent plates or scales. These parts will be found
to present themselves in the hair of bats, subject to modifications,
more particularly in the form and arrangement of the cuticular
plates or scales. Although I shall follow a zoological order in the
enumeration of the hairs which I have examined, I shall regard
them as constituting six groups, more or less allied by structure as
well as zoological affinities.

In the large frugivorous bats of the Malayan Islands and Con-
tinental India, the simplest form of hair prevails. There are four
species of Pteropus known in these localities, of which I have only
examined two. One of these is the Kalong of Java, found also in
Tenasserim, and known as Pteropus edulis, and the other is the
Wawul of the Malays (Pteropus Edwardsii), which is found in
India generally. The species of which I have not seen the hairs,
are Pteropus Leschenaultii, of Southern India, and Pteropus
melanotus of the Nicobar Islands. This genus extends also to
Australia.

The dimensions of these bats are given by Dr. Horsfield as bav-
in f an expanse of five feet, and the length of body at a foot ;
whilst Colonel Sykes declares that these dimensions are too small,
and that he has seen them fourteen and a half inches long in the
body.

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS. 39

The hairs are large and nearly smooth on the surface. The
ciiticular plates or scales are closely appressed, so that they bear
some resemblance to those of human hair. There is a distinct
medulla. In P. Edwardsii there is a slight appearance of longitudi-
nal striation, but this may not belong to the scales, which are larger
than in Pteropus edulis, and they appear to encircle the shaft, or at
least I could trace no longitudinal partitions. When mounted in
balsam the medulla is distinct on account of the enclosed air, and
very small for the diameter of the hair.

More recently I have examined the hair of Pteropus poliocephalus
from New Holland, and find a great similarity in structure to the
hair of the Indian Pteropi. These constitute the first group of
nearly smooth hairs.

Closely allied to the Pteropi is a genus hitherto unknown in
Continental India, but which occurs in Malayan countries and in
Siam. This is Xantharpi/ia, the hair of which I have had no oppor-
tunity of examining.

The " Dogbat " of Java, Macroglossus minimus, belongs to the
same family, and though not found in Continental India, it occurs
in the Tenasserim provinces as well as Malayan countries.

Microscopically these hairs have an affinity with those of
Cynopterus and Megaderma, to be noticed presently, rather than
with the Pteropi.

The scales appear to be cylindrical, slightly expanding upwards,
and entire at their margins. In balsam the medulla is distinct and
large, and the outline of the hair distinctly serrated. The form of
the scales becomes obliterated by their transparency in balsam.

A singular genus of Indian bats also have their place in this
family, and are characterised, amongst other features, by the
absence of distinct tails. The genus Cynoptems is believed by
many to have only one representative in India, Ceylon, Burmah,
Malaya, and the Nicobar Islands. The name applied by Mr. Blyth
to this species is Cynopterus marginatus. Dr. Horsfield recognised
three species, which he called respectively Cynopterus titthcecheilus,
Cynopterus marginatus, and Cynopterus Horsfieldii. The two
former of these Dr. Gray unites, and adds a third, under the name
of Cynopteims ajrnis. The hair of the last I have not seen.
Authentic specimens of the three supposed species of Dr. Horsfield
I have examined, and find as great differences between two of them
as between some species in other genera. However, little reliance

40 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

can be placed on tlie examination of the hairs of single specimens
in the determination of species. Mr. Blyth's single species in-
cludes, as he believes, the three species of Horsfield as well as the
three species recognised by Dr. Gray. The hairs of Cynoptenis
marginatus and Cynopterus titthcecheilus I cannot distinguish from
each other, but those of CynojJterus Horsfieldii offer very marked
differences. In all the scales are cup-shaped, and closely set on
the shaft. As seen in balsam, they are not like the same objects
examined dry, but become exceedingly beautiful from the large and
distinct medulla, which is twice as broad in C. marginatus as in C.
Horsfieldii^ and the outhne of the hair apparently fringed or
barbed, whereas these barbs are but the side view of the scales,
the front view being lost in their transparency. These apparent
barbs are coarser and more closely appressed in C. Horsfieldii than
in C . marginatus.

I am at a loss to understand the eri-or into which so good an
observer as Mr. Quekett must have fallen, when he wrote " the
larger kind of hairs, such as are procured from the various species
of vampire, are generally of a dark yellow colour, and are com-
paratively smooth, externally, but exhibit a cellular structure in-
ternally." He has evidently mistaken the large frugivorous bats
for vampires, for the kind of hair which he has figured does not be-
long to the Asiatic vampires. The genus Megaderma represents
the vampire in India, of which Mr. Blyth enumerates three species,
one {Megaderma lyra) common in India generally, one {Megaderma
Horsfieldii) found in the Tenasserim provinces, and one {Megadeima
spasmd) in Malayan countries. The Megaderma schistacea of
Hodgson he quotes as identical with 3Iegaderma lyra.

The hairs of Megaderma lyra have a rather closely serrated
margin, the scales being somewhat crowded. The large medtdla
is very distinctly seen, even in the dry state, but when mounted in
balsam or spirit, the hair appears to consist entirely of a broad
medulla and a thin transparent fringed or ciliated margin. The
hairs of Megadeima spasma are very similar, and not to be con-
founded with those of any other genus except, perhaps, that of
Cynopterus.

Up to this point we have passed through two groups of hairs,
nearly according with the zoological divisions of the animals yield-
ing "them. (1.) The large frugivorous bats of the genus P^«*o/ws,
yielding large, coarse, and almost smooth hairs, scarcely partaking

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS. 41

of the bail- of bats. (2.) The vampire bats, inchiding Macroglossus
or the dog-bat, which is said to belong to the frugiverous bats ;
the bob-tailed bats, of the genus Cynopterus, which are also believed
to be fruit eaters, and the genus Megadenna of the vampires. All
these have much in common in the character of their hair. In all,
the medulla is distinct and large, the scales are somewhat close
together, and all exhibit a similar appearance when mounted in
balsam. One might almost venture to affirm that, if any of these
hairs were mixed with those of any other group to which I shall
direct your attention, that it would be quite possible to indicate
every hair that was so mixed, if the whole were immersed in dis-
tilled water or spirits

The third group includes three genera of what may be termed
pseudo-vampires. They are the horse-shoe bats, of which we have
representatives in Great Britain. The two genera of Rhinolophus
and Hipposideros are so nearly allied, that some zoologists regard
the one as a sub-genus of the other ; and this is singularly borne
out by an examination of the hairs, for not only is it exceedingly
difficult to indicate any character whereby the hair of one species
can be recognised from that of another, but it is also impossible to
indicate any character whereby those of Rhinolophus can be known
from those of Hipposideros. The third genus (Nycteris) offers a
little modification of character.

The fourth group of hairs is of most interest to the microscopist,
as it includes those having the margin of the scales serrated,
notched, or toothed. As far as Indian bats are concerned, it
includes the genera Rhinopoma, Taphozoiis, and Nyctinomus. I
rather think that the genius JIolossus, which is not represented in
India, and which has very peculiar hairs in some of its species,
must be placed here, as also the hairs which are mounted and sold
as the hair of the Indian bat and the hair of Australian bat. Mr.
Richter tells me that an Australian Molossus has most character-
istic and beautiful hairs. Whatever the unknown hairs may be, I
doubt not that the animal has a close affinity with Rhinopoma or
Taj)hozous.

The genus Rhinopoma has one single representative in India and
one in Africa, whereas Tapjhozous is represented in India by two
species.

Rhinopoma Hardwickii, of all species of Indian bats, des^erves
most the appellation of long-tailed bat. Mr. Janson says, he should

E 2

42 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

think that the tail of the bat which he had seen as yielding the true
" Hair of Indian bat," was full two inches in length. The tail in
this species is about that length, the naked portion extending beyond
the membrane, being two inches and a quarter.

The fifth group includes the one genus Nycticejus, the hairs of
which present no affinity to those of either the preceding or suc-
ceeding group, but rather, perhaps, with those of the third.

All the species of Nycticejus which I have examined possess hair
of a very similar character. It is, in fact, difficult to indicate any
specific features, whilst generically, or in as far as the whole group
is concerned, they possess a character which appears to be peculiar
to them. The edges are deeply serrated, the scales appear to be
irregular, but very indistinct, and when mounted in balsam, there
is certainly, in some lights, an appearance of imbrication. I am,
therefore, not prepared to say that the scales are cylindrical, nor
can I affirm that they partake of the character of imbricated plates.
I am disposed to think that the imbricated appearance is a decep-
tion due to the very great transparency of the hairs in balsam.

The last group is a large one, and includes the genera Scotophilus,
Lasmriis, Kerivoula, Ves2')ertilio, and Plecotus. The margins of
the scales are usually obhque, darkened with deposits of pigment,
and, especially in Plecotus, are sometimes only semi-cylindrical and
alternate. The serratures at the edges of the hairs are seldom
opposite, and the hairs themselves are slender. When mounted in
balsam the presence of pigment in the scales is very distinct.
These are all small bats, some of them the smallest of known species,
and I am not sure that I could determine from an examination of
the hair alone whether an individual was a Scotophilus, a Kerivoida,
or a Vespertiiio. Indeed I do not think that zoologists themselves
are quite agreed as to the limits and distinctions of the different
genera in this group. One calls Lasmrus a Vespertiiio, another
calls Kerivoula a Vespertiiio, and another charges a fom-th with
making a S-cotopliilus a Kerivoula, whilst a fifth removes a Vesper-
tiiio to a new genus, and gives it a new name. This uncertainty
shows that they are all very closely allied, and of this the hairs
appear to afford corroborative evidence.

Having enumerated all the species of Asiatic bats of which I
have examined the hairs (and which for convenience are grouped at
the close of this paper), it remains for me to indicate those of
which I am in ignorance. Xantharpyia amplexicaudatais a Malayan

M, C. COOKE ON THE HAIRR OF INDIAN BATS. 43

species, and probablj'^ resembles Macroglossxis. Tlie species of
Pteroptis, Megaderma, Rhinoloi^hus, and Ilipposideros, unknown,
it is presumed will not differ materially from those already ex-
amined. Coelops Frithii has occurred in Bengal, but I believe that
only one specimen is known. Taphozous saccolaimus probably ac-
cords with the other two species of the same genus. Cheiromeles
torqiiatus has such very short hair that it appears to be almost
naked ; it is confined to Sumatra, and therefore is not Indian.
NoctuUnia noctula is Himalayan as well as British. The species
of Nycticcjus not examined are probably very much like the four
species to which I have alluded. Scotophilus probably offers in its
other species counterparts of those already examined, and what
remains of Vespertilio to be known, doubtless will partake of the
same tyjDe as those already described. Murina suilla is a Hima-
layan species of which I have no knowledge, and it is the only one
of its genus recorded in India. Kerivoula pallida and Sychesiiii
is presumed will not differ much from Kerivoula picta. Myotis has
five representatives in India, of which one is also British. The
common barbastelle, Barbastellus communis^ is British as well as
Indian. Nyctophilus Geoffroyi is European as well as Indian. Of
all, therefore, which I have not examined, and which consist of
about fifty species, there are only eight genera unrepresented, and
of these one is unique, and four are European genera, leaving but
three peculiarly Asiatic genera, and of these Cheiromeles belongs
to Sumatra, so that Xanthaipyia, which is a genus of fragivorous
bats allied to Ptero^ms and Murina^ which has but one Indian
species, are all that really demand examination.

I think, therefore, if my researches have not been wholly
exhaustive, that we have an approximate idea of the structure of
hair in all the species of Indian bats as comprised in the three lists
to which I at first referred. Although I do not wish to insinuate
that there is specific character in the hair, yet I think that there is
not the slightest reason to believe that any great dissimilarity will
be found in the hairs of any species of a given genus of which the
hairs in other two, three, four, or more species are known to resem-
ble each other, and to follow a common type. If, for instance, in
four species of Nycticejus the hair is so nearly alike as scarcely to
be distinguished the one from the other, it is not illogical to con-
clude that in a fifth species there will be^ no great divergence from
the type of the other four.

44 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

I think that I had better make a clean conscience and confess
that I have not found a hair amongst any of the specimens that I
have examined which is identical with that mounted by Mr. Top-
ping as the hair of the Indian bat. Thus far, therefore, my
labours have ended in a failure, but I cannot believe that my labour
is wholly lost. What has been done contributes to lessen the work
of any one who may think fit to follow me, and I hope that we
may yet secure specimens of the long-tailed bat, and a more com-
plete examination of hair from all parts of the body of both sexes
of Elwiopoma Hardwickii may furnish more clue to the unknown
hair. But on the supposition that even this fails I would fain
believe that the examination of the hair of so large a number of
well authenticated species will not be an unwelcome addition to our
Microscopical Literature.

Amono-st the hairs that have been examined I tliink that there
are several which are well worthy of a place in any cabinet, and
should we secure an active Indian correspondent, desirous of ex-
changing specimens with us, bat hair will certainly not be for-
gotten.

The examination just completed has impressed upon me the
conviction that the two forms of hair seen in so many of the speci-
mens represent the hair, properly so called, which overlies the
other, and is alone exposed on the surface ; this is coarser,
smoother, and more deeply coloured. The under hair, or fur, is
much smaller, more irregular, and with more expanding scales.
What is designated " Hair of Indian bat," is a fur of this kind.
One cannot help noticing the similarity in structure of this " fur "
to the " down " of feathers, which appears to answer a similar pur-
pose. Another circumstance is noticeable in some hairs, such as
those of Rldnopoma, that the scales are further apart and more dis-
tinct, resembling a species of fur at their base, and more hair-like
towards the extremity. This seems to point to a different func-
tion in the upper and lower portion of the hair — the one asso-
ciated with the preservation of the heat of the body, and the other
protection from external vicissitudes,

I am not sure that the character of the fur of animals does not
undergo some modifications at different seasons of the year. We
know that many animals exhibit externally a great difference in
colour in winter and sunmier, and it is not improbable that the fur,
or undergrowth, also undergoes modifications. I am not, how-

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OP INDIAN BATS. 45

ever, in possession of any facts to support ttis liypotliesis, but I
think it is one Avhicli would furnish a useful series of observa-
tions.

I fear that the many imperfections of my paper will require a
more ample apology than I can offer. This kind of investigation
is new to me, and was only undertaken because of the facility I
possessed of obtaining a large number of authentic specimens, and
because of the continued enquiry about the names and hairs of
Indian bats. I examined all the specimens dry, and in balsam, many
in distilled water, and some in spirit. All were viewed with a ^ and
an ^ objective, and the majority by means of polarized light. Alto-
gether not less than 300 examinations were made, and about 200
separate sketches. Many friends mounted for me specimens, in
addition to those I mounted for myself, so that altogether between
300 and 400 preparations were made. I am now convinced that
the true character of the hair is only to be seen when it is mounted
dry, and under a good strong hght. At first I was a firm believer
in balsam, but though I still think that all should be seen in bal-
sam, it obliterates too much. The polariscope and |- object glass
are great assistants.

Desirous that this paper should be made as useful as possible to
the club, and as a kind of penance for the infliction, I present for
its acceptance a series of the hairs described, mounted dry and in
balsam, which I have made up to 100 slides. The diagrams ex-
hibited this evening, and the portfolio which contained them, I
also place at the disposal of the Club, so that it may possess the
means of testing my observations.

(A Synopsis will appear in the next number with the third plate.)

46
NOVELTIES.

Growing Slide. — We are all acquainted witli the " live box," its
conveniences and its disadvantages. We know that it is not suited
for very delicate manipulation, and that it is easily damaged. It is
difi&cult to keep an object long in it, and not always easyto keep
the living organism in the field of view. Mr. Curties, F.R.M.S.,
has greatly improved upon this old contrivance, by introducing a
"live box" for aquatic objects, at once simple and effective.

It consists of a glass slide, Sin. by lin., usually termed a hollow
slip, in the centre of which is an oval or circular " well." At one
end of the slide a small hole is drilled, through which passes a
pin, having at the upper end a fine screw. This pin, or pivot,
carries a brass button, to which is cemented an oblong thin glass
cover. By screwing a smaller button to the upper end of the
pivot the two surfaces of slide and cover are brought into contact.

On moving the covering glass aside, the object, with a supply
of water, may be readily introduced, and the cover being slid back
into its place, the slide is ready for examination.

This slide cell offers unusual facilities for observing the habits of
many interesting specimens of pond life, and forms also au excel-
lent " growing slide." For this purpose, and generally when it
is required to keep an object alive, it may be kept in a perpen-
dicular position in a wide-mouthed bottle filled with water; or
better still, a small glass tank may be made of a proper depth,
having a wooden top in which holes may be cut as guides, through
which the slide may be plunged when not required for observation.
In this way a number of slides may be kept ready for use, and
organisms in different stages of development may be isolated and
watched, and their changes noted. Any apparatus which facilitates
the study of the life history of any organism gives another step
towards the increase of our knowledge, and Mr. Curties deserves
our thanks for his simple, inexpensive, and useful contrivance.

" CoAGDLiNE." — Under this name a transparent cement has re-
cently been introduced by Mr. Kay, of Stockport, which, we
think, will be of use to the microscopist. It is extremely tenacious,
and when slightly heated by placing the bottle in wami water, it
may be applied by a camel's hair brush to the surfaces intended to
be united. It soon sets, and so strongly that when used to join
glass, the glass itself will often break on the application of force,
before the cement fails. It promises well for the large built-
up cells, or small tanks, such as the one just recommended for the
reception of Mr. Curties' " slide cell."

47

QUEKETT MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.

DECEMBER 27th, 1867.

Akthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.
The following donations to the club were announced :—

' ' Leeuwenhoek's Works," 3 Vols. ; " A Manual of Structural Botany ;" "A
Plain and Easy Account of British Fungi;" "Our Keptiles ;" De Serres and
Chabrieron " Insect Anatomy ;" Griffith's "Asiatic Cryptogamia and Atlas "
*'The Telescope and Microscope;" Otto Muller's "Von Wurmen;" Robin's
" Du Microscope et des Injections ;" Fonvielle's *' La Monde Invisible ;"
and Trembley's "Polypes" (in German), from Mr. M. C. Cooke; Quekett's
"Lectures on Histology," and Hannover "On the Microscope," from Mr.
Wheldon; "The Naturalist's Circular," from the Editor; and "Science
Gossip," from the Publisher ; six slides of ferns were presented by Mr. R. T.
Lewis, and specimens of Stephanoceros were sent by the Rev. John Hickley,
and sections of wood by Mr. J. Marshall, both through Mr. Curties, who also
contributed specimens of Conochilus, for distribution among the members.

A vote of thanks was unanimously passed in acknowledgment of these
donations .

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership :— Rev. Andrew
Johnson, M.A., Mr. Samuel Leith Tomkins, Mr. W. Warwick King, Mr. C. C.
Jewell, Mr. Fancourt Barnes, Mr. Alexis Ricca, Dr. John Macdonald, Mr.
W. H. Kirkby, Mr. C. J. Richardson, and Mr. F. J. Blandy.

Dr. Arthur Mead Edwards, President of the American Microscopical Society,
of New York, was nominated, on the recommendation of the Committee,
as an honorary member of the Club.

Eleven gentlemen, proposed at the previous meeting, were balloted for and
declared duly elected.

The Honorary Secretary for Foreign Correspondence announced that he had
received a letter from Professor De Notaris, thanking the members for the
honour conferred upon him by his election as the first honorary foreign member,
and promising to forward a copy of his latest work on " Italian Desmids." Mr.
Cooke also announced that he had received some packets of diatomaceous earth
from North America for exchange among the members, and suggested that all
material and all slides sent in for the purpose should be correctly and clearly
named.

Mr. Burgess then read the second part of his paper on "Wools," and the
thanks of the meeting were presented to that gentleman for his paper.

Mr. Beckett directed the attention of the meeting to a simple live box, con-
eisting of a ring of brass with a central hole, about one-tenth of an inch in

48

diameter, which ring is cemented to a glass slip, the cover being fixed in the
centre by two small springs. The space being small, a living object is kept
within the field of view of an object glass of two-thirds inch focus.

The President having announced that Mr. M. C. Coote would read a paper
" On the Hairs of Indian Bats " at the next meeting,

The proceedings terminated with the usual conversazione.

JANUARY 24th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read, the secretary an-
nounced the following donations: — "The Naturalist's Circular," from the
Editor ; " The Popular Science Eeview," from the Publisher, and the Lord's
Prayer, written in the two thousand five-hundredth part of an inch, from
Captain St. John.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to the donors.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership:— Mr. Thomas Crook,
F.E.M.S., Mr. P. E. Leefe, and Dr. Dempsey, F.E.M.S.

Ten gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were then balloted for and
duly elected. Dr. Arthur Mead Edwards, of New York, who was proposed
at the last meeting as an honorary foreign member, was also duly elected.

The President stated that the subject of the microscopic investigation of deep
sea soundings having been brought before the notice of the committee, one of
their number, Mr. Arnold, had communicated with Capt. G. E,, Eichards,
E.N., as to the possibility of obtaining his help in the collection of the neces-
sary material. Capt. Eichards had expressed his willingness to assist, and with
his letter had forwarded a box of specimens. It was proposed to form a com-
mittee of gentlemen having some knowledge of the subject, to examine the
soundings thus obtained, and the names of gentlemen willing to join were
requested to be sent to Mr. Arnold, who had consented to act as secretary of
the sub- committee, when formed.

Mr. M. C. Cooke then read his paper on "The Hairs of Indian Bats" (see
page 33), at the conclusion of which, he presented the whole of the slides
illustrative of his paper, together with others, amounting to one hundred, to
the Cabinet of the Club. He also presented the diagrams used by him, con-
taining 43 figures of bats' hair, on an enlarged scale, with the portfolio contain-
ing them, to the library of the Club.

The especial thanks of the meeting were expressed to Mr. Cooke for his valu-
able paper, and for the handsome gifts accompanying it.

Mr. Burgess drew attention to the point that as bats' hair was so much ser-
rated it ought to " felt" well, whereas there was no felting property. This
fact seemed to coincide with his own deductions in his paper read at the last
meeting.

The President announced that at the next meeting Mr. Hislop would give
some suggestions on Oblique Illumination, and Mr. Draper would read a paper
• * On the proper application of the Microscope by Amateurs," and the meeting
terminated.

49

FEBRUARY 28th, 1868.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting were read, and the following donations
were announced : — " Land and Water," from the Editor. " Beale's Lectures on
the Microscope and its application to Clinical Medicine," from Mr. Wheldon.
" Remarks upon the Electric Telegraph" by the Eev. Thos. Fothergill Cooke.
•' Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the Society. "The
First Volume of the Naturalists' Note Book," from the Editor. Pritchard's
" Infusoria," from the Rev. B. Compton, M.A. "The Naturalist's Circular,"
from the Editor. "Science Gossip," from the Publisher. Two engi-aved wood
blocks of the enlarged Monogram of the Club, from Mr, Ruffle, and fifty slides
from Mr. M. C. Cooke.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors.

In presenting the slides, Mr. M. C. Cooke spoke as follows: — I have one or
two observations to make respecting the slides. 36 of them are of hairs, but not
bats' hairs this time ; they are for the most part the hairs of Rodents. There
is amongst them one of the hair of a jumping rat, a kind of jerboa, which I
think the members of the Club will find worth the trouble of looking at. And
whilst speaking of hairs, I would observe that there are many more kinds of
hairs that are flat than have been hitherto supposed, and I find that in three
genera of bats the hairs are decidedly flat. With regard to the hair of the mole,
for instance, we hear the alternate diminishing and increasing of the diameter
sometimes spoken of, whereas the diminished portions are merely side views of
the hair, which is flattened. In the dormouse this is also the case. Another of
the slides is of a rather curious object, the resin glands of a species of Euphor-
biacese. They are little crimson glands, forming the bases of certain stellate
hairs. The resin may be dissolved by spirits of wine, to which it gives a beautiful
carmine colour ; but this destroys the glands as microscopical objects. I should
also like to mention that I have received from an American correspondent a com-
munication respecting a new microscope, which has just been brought out there
at the Boston Optical Works. They caU it a Student's Microscope, and a
photograph of it which I have here, represents it as something like one of our
5 guinea instruments, and its height is given as 15in. ; but then it seems to have
rather a higher stand than usual. The mirror can be removed from the stand
when required, and used as a reflector to illuminate opaque objects, but the
stage appears to have only the finger and thumb motion, which would suit our
Continental neighbours. It is described as having coarse and fine adjustments;
the coarse adjustment appears to be one tube sliding in another; the fine ad-
justment I cannot clearly discover. It is furnished with two objectives, a lin.
and a jin. For this, the sum charged is 65 dollars, or about £13 ! But when
we consider that they regard this a cheap instrument, and that they hare
hitherto been paying as much as £12 10s. for one of our 5 guinea microscopes,
we cannot wonder that, as a body, our American friends are doing so little with
the microscope, since they have to do it at so great a cost. And whilst I am
standing here, may I request the attention of our members to one or two facts
respecting the condition of our cabinet? I do not think that the number of
slides contributed is anything like what it ought to be ; for, taking out of the

50

number those whicli I have given, and also those which have been contributed
by persons not members of the club, there remains about half a slide to every
individual. Now, I really do think that this is a state of things which ought not
to exist, and that those gentlemen ought to feel a little ashamed who, whilst
they benefit from the contributions of others, have never contributed them-
selves. I have, in conclusion, only to say, by way of stimulating the matter,
that if one, two, three, or even six gentlemen, will together give 100 slides to
the cabinet before the annual meeting, I will undertake to add another 100.

The President introduced to the meeting Dr. Thomas P. Purleigh. of Port-
land, U.S., who had brought an American objective of l-15th inch focus, con-,
structed by Mr. Wailes. It could be used both on the immersion principle and
dry, and Dr. Purleigh was desirous of comparing it with objectives of English
make.

The Secretary read the following names of gentlemen desirous of becoming
members of the Club : —

Mr. Alfred Aubert, Mr. J. W. Morris, P.L.S., Professor R. V. Tuson, Dr.
Daniel Moore, Mr. John J. Fox, Mr. John Oakeshott, Mr. John N. Burrows,
Mr. J. P. Bidlake, F.R.M.S., Mr. Jas. How, P.R.M.S., Mr. John Bowing, Mr!
Chas. Cubitt, F.R.M.S., Mr. Thos. Simson, Mr. Jas, Field, Mr, S. 0. Gray, and
Mr. J. R. VaUentin.

Three gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were then balloted for and
duly elected.

The President announced that the names of two gentlemen had been sent in
for addition to the sub-committee appointed to examine the deep sea soundings
now being received from various quarters, but that more gentlemen were re-
quired to properly carry out the investigation.

The President also announced that the following resolution had been unanim-
ously passed at a meeting of the Committee held that evening: —

** That it is the opinion of this committee that ladies should be admitted as
members of this Club."

The question would be discussed at the next meeting of the Club, which
would be made special for the purpose, in accordance with the rules.

The Annual Soiree of the Club was announced for Friday, March 13th and
the President informed the members that a considerable number of invitations
had been issued, and that a large assemblage was expected. He also paid a
well merited tribute to the authorities of University College, who had met the
Committee of the Club with the greatest possible courtesy, and had done all in
their power to make the soire'e successful.

The announcements of objects exhibited were as follows: — Mr. Potter, "Hair
of Ornithorynchus ;" Mr. M'Intire, "Wing of Adela Moth;" Mr. Curties,
" Volvox Globator," and a new pocket cabinet for objects ; Mr. Marks, " Some
of the Microscopic results of a cold in the head ;" Mr. Hinds, " Foramenifera
from the Mediterranean ;" Mr. Fred. Durham, " The Head of the Tape Worm
of the Dog," and " The Echinocoecus of the Human Subject."

Mr. Hislop then read ' ' Some suggestions on Oblique Illumination." The
paper was illustrated by diagrams.
A vote of thanks was awarded to Mr. Hislop for his paper.
Mr. Draper then read a paper " On the proper application of the Microscope
by Amateurs."

The President fully accorded with Mr. Draper's remarks, and stated that he

51

intended to have followed the same line of argument in liis future address. The
concluding suggestion of Mr. Draper to form a collection of drawings of appear-
ances as observed by the Microscopist, for the purpose of adding to the coUec-
tion of the Club, he thought particularly valuable.

Mr. F. Durham, in a few remarks explanatory of the specimens he exhibited,
said : Under this microscope, with an inch object-glass, is the head and part of
the body of a tape-worm from the intestines of a dog. The head is provided
with four suckers, and a double circle of very peculiar booklets, by which it is
firmly fixed to the interior of the intestine. This animal has neither mouth
nor ahmentary canal, but imbibes its food, already digested for it, through its
tissues. The body, a small portion of which is shown, is made up of an immense
number of similar segments, and in some species reaches a length of a dozen
feet or more. Each segment may be said to be a perfect animal, for each
possesses all the organs necessary for the production of a large number of ova.
These ova, which are little roundish vesicles with booklets, similar to those of
the mature animal, pass through a variety of changes before attaining matu-
rity. They are passed out from the bodies of their hosts, or the mature segment
full of them is so passed, with the excrement. The ova are thus distributed over
the country. Of course, happily, immense numbers perish; but many, in a
variety of ways, get into the intestines of other animals. Thus they may be
drank with water, or in the case of herbivorous animals, eaten with the food.
It is only, however, in the intestines of some animals that they become at once
developed into tape-worms ; in others they pass from the intestines, either being
carried by the circulation, or boring their way through the tissues until they
reach a suitable spot.

The liver appears a very favourite place. In this organ one of these larvjB (as
we wiU call them) may attach itself by its hooklets, and begin to grow. Its
body swells and swells until it forms an immense sac, filled with fluid. At the
same time there are developed, both inside and outside it, other similar little
animals, which also grow in the same way, and inside them again others may
be found.

Various diseased states are thus set up. The Hydatid disease in man is caused
by the larvae, or echinococci (as they are here called) , from one species of dog's
tape-worm, not however the one exhibited. Measles in pork, staggers in sheep,
are caused by other varieties. When flesh thus infected is eaten, or the larvae
in any way gets into an intestine whose fluids agree with it, the head becomes
attached to the mucous membrane by its hooklets, and from its posterior part
true tape-worm segments are formed. These multiply very rapidly, and in a
short time a perfect tape-worm is produced.

Under the second microscope, with a four-tenths objective, are some echino-
cocci, removed during life from an hydatid cyst, in the liver of a young woman
who was successfully operated upon a short time ago at Guy's Hospital by our
President.

These animals are, certainly, not very agreeable ones to have to entertain as
guests ; but, apart from their associations, are very interesting to examine and
study, from the peculiar changes they undergo.

The following papers were announced for the next meeting : " On some rare
and undescribed Species of Infusoria," by Mr. Tatem, and " On a new Objec-
tive," by Mr. M. C. Cooke.

After the usual conversazione, the meeting terminated. .

•52
MARCH, 13th 1868.

Annual Soiree op the Quekett Microscopical Club,
AT University College.

The second Annual Soiree took place at University College, Gower-street, on
March 13th, 1868. The spacious halls and rooms of the building were placed at
the disposal of the Committee by the Council of the College, and it is eminently
due to that body to acknowledge the enlightened and hearty support they
have afforded to the cause of popular science as represented by this and other
societies.

The microscopes and collections of objects of interest were arranged in the
principal library of the College, and also in the Anatomical Museum, which was
specially fitted up for the occasion. A large dark room was provided in one of
the corridors, where some of Dr. Maddox's exquisite Micro-photographs were
exhibited upon the screen by the lime-light, and also some of the effects of
polarization. Eefreshments were served in two of the class-rooms and in the
Museum.

The visitors began to arrive by eight o'clock, and were received at the
head of the principal staircase by the President (Arthur E. Durham, Esq.),
the Treasurer (Mr. Hardwicke), the Secretary (Mr. W. M. Bywater), and other
members of the committee. About 900 ladies and gentlemen were present dur-
ing the evening. One hundred and seven microscopes were contributed by
seventy-five members of the club, and fifteen makers displayed ninety-eight
instruments.

The deficiencies of the following account must be attributed to the difficulty of
ascertaining what was really shewn, and to the impossibility of personally inspect-
ing every object of interest in so great a multitude. It must be observed
that extreme novelty, either in instruments or specimens prepared, can
hardly be expected on occasions like these. Anything new is generally
brought forward at the ordinary meetings of our societies, or published in
other forms, not reserved for these annual occasions. But still an observant
and experienced eye may form a judgment as to the state of the particular science
which may be represented. It is much the fashion for individuals to express
their opinion of their own attainments on these occasions by disclaiming the idea
of anything whatever being new to them. They have seen it, or had it, or
done it, often and long before. But it is equally certain that the most
universal genius may obtain and does obtain hints and suggestions which, if they
do not actually originate anything new, may modify conclusions or throw a dif-
ferent light on previous opinions. Giving the first place to the members of the
Club, the following were noticed: —

Mr. Bentley. — A microscope supposed to be 200 years old.

Mr. Bezant. — A number of slides containing Poramenifera, Polyzoa,
Diatoms, &c.

Dr. Braithwaite. — A collection of specimens and drawings of Mosses.

Mr. Burgess. — A large microscope giving a field of 23 inches in diameter. Pre-
parations of a large size, both dry and in balsam ; the latter chiefly consisting
of whole insects, the slide being 3 inches by 2 inches and being capable of
examination by the half-inch and four-tenths-inch objectives. Some pre-

53

parations were larger still, sucH as " Lucanus Cervas," and an Anstralian
dipterous insect of the genus " Asilus," and to these was added a specimen of
Euplectella Aspergillum. Mr. Burgess also exhibited beneath his microscopes
a number of injected preparations and sections by polarized light.

Mr. M. C. Cooke showed three microscopic fungi. — The Gregarious Sphoeria,
Chain Brand on leaves of Burnet, and Vermilion Sphoeria on currant
twigs.

Mr. Thomas Curties. — A large instrument termed " The Engiscope," designed
by Dr. Goring, and a vahiable collection of gold and silver ores from
California, also a beautiful series of Microscopic photographs by Doctors Curtis
and Woodward, U.S.A.

Mr. Dobson. — Section of a Pearl.

Mr. A. E. Durham, the President. — A collection of Micro-photographs ex-
ecuted by himself.

Mr. Fred. Durham. — A section of human lung injected, and a series of
specimens of Acarus {^Sarcopies) -ScaS/eJ, consisting of a full grown Acarus, a
young one and two eggs, in a piece of sldn cut from the finger.

Mr. C. J. Fox. — Polarized Crystals.

Mr. Hislop. — Selected Polycystinoa and Diatoms, and tongues of Mollusca with
the shells of the animals, contributed by Dr. Deinpsey. Also crystals of
*' Peacock" Saliciue and Phloridzine, by polarized light.

Mr. E,. H. Johnson. — Parts of Insects.

Mr. W. S. Kent. — A series of Water Spiders with their ova.

Mr. Mclntire. — The Scorpion insect {Chelifer Latreillii), and its prey, a
Podura (Lepidocyrtus) alive. Polyxenus Lagurus, a myriapod found under the
bark of willows and elms, also alive.

Mr. W. A. Marsh. — Sea-weeds, Diatoms andDesmids.

Mr. Martinelli. — Madreporiform tubercle of Star fish.

Mr. Wm. Moginie. — A travelling microscope, portable lamp, portable air
pump, portable object cabinet, &o., and a collection of Diatoms from Los
Angelos.

Mr. G. Potter. — Hairs by Polarized light. Bone and teeth sections, and a
collection of recent shells.

Mr. H. Scadding. — Scales of Scyllium by polarized light.

Mr. C. Stewart. — A table Polar iscope.

Mr. F. Bedford also contributed a number of photographic views which were
displayed in different parts of the rooms.

Among the makers of microscopes, the exhibitors were —

Mr. Baker.— Twenty instruments, and a collection of objects, among which
were the Parasites of Elephant and Flying Fox, and a new species of Plant
Bug.

Mr. Browning. — Pour Microscopes, Spectroscopes, and Telescopes.

Mr. CoUins. — Nine instruments. Injections of Human Lung, Human Kidney,
Finger of Infant, Lung of Black Snake, and other objects, Fiddian's new
" Eclipse" Lamp, with Metallic Chimney and Shade.

Mr. Crouch. — Eight instruments, new Rotatory Stage, improved Simple Stage,
improved Parabolic Side Reflector, and a collection of objects.

Mr. Elliott. — A collection of scientific apparatus.

Messrs. Home and Thornthwaite. — Microscopes and Telescopes, one of the
latter mounted equatoriaUy, Artificial Tourmalines, Ackland's Optometer and
Tables relating thereto, Ackland's Alcohol Thermometer and Dividing Engines,
Polariscope a:id Gassiot's Tubes, the latter shown illuminated.

54

Mr. How exhibited in the dark-room, Dr. Maddox's Micro-photographs on a
screen 10ft. in diameter, the Oxy hydrogen Polariscope showing Polarization by
pressure, Unannealed Glass, Selenite Objects, &c.. Kaleidoscopic efifects and
Photographic "Views. In the Museum ten Microscopes, Table Polariscope,
Graphoscopes and Achromatic Stereoscopes, with Dr. Maddox's Stereoscopic
Micro-photographs.

Mr. King.— Salmon Hatching, Marine and Fresh Water Aquaria and objects
of Natural History.

Mr. Ladd. — Prisma and spheres of doubly refracting Spar.

Messrs. Loam and Fearns. — An adjustable rotatory microscope table.

Messrs. Murray and Heath. — Seven instruments and a collection of objects.
Photographs and Stereographs.

Messrs. Newton. — Fourteen Microscopes, Photographs, and Slides.

Messrs. PoweU and Lealand. — Three large instruments, and among other
objects, the Circulation of the Blood in the tail of a fish, under the patent
binocular arrangement for high powers.

Mr. Thomas Ross. — Six Binocular Microscopes, all of them with his new four-
inch objective, showing the follovnng objects:- — Young Salmon (alive) , Diamond
Beetle, Ova of Toad, Head of Tiger Beetle, Sheep Tick, Elytron of Diamond
Beetle, Haliotis shell section. Trachea of Centipede, Feet of Dytiscus, Elytron
of Curculio splendeus, Ciliary process of Eye of Ox, Iridescent oxide of Lead.

Messrs. Smith and Beck. — Eight instruments ; the Eyeball of Cat showing
entrance of Optic Nerve, Eetiua and vessels of the membrane Euyschiana; Tooth
of Cat injected, (unique) Acari of Water Eat. Human skin showing hair bulbs.
Eggs and Parasite of HombiU, &c.

Mr. Solomon. — The enlargement of the figures of microscopic objects and
micro-photographs by the Magnesium Light.

Mr. J. H. Steward. — Ten microscopes; Circulation of the Blood in a frog's
foot with a binocular under an inch and with Kelner's eye-pieces, giving a field
of 18 inches; Parasites, Seaweeds, Spicules, Hairs, Crystals, and selections of
Diatoms.

Mr. Wheeler. — A large collection of mounted objects.

THE JOFENAL

or THE

(^ui:lvctl |i;xrr0sr0pkal €lnh.

On the Hairs of Indian Bats, by M. C. Cooke.
Part II. — Synopsis.

GROUP L

1.— Pteropus editlis. Peron. — (' The Kalong.') Malay countries. —
Animal upwards of a foot in length ; hairs large and opaque ; surface
nearly smooth ; cuticular plates small, imhricated, and closely appressed ;
medulla one-sixth to one eighth of the diameter ; very distinct when
mounted in halsam. — (PI. \,fig. l.*J

2 —Pteropus Edwardsii. 6^£'o^.— (The 'Wurbagool.') India generally,
&c. — Animal upwards of a foot in length ; hairs large and opaque ; surface
nearly smooth; cuticular plates large — generally cylindrical, or with the
longitudinal divisions very indistinct ; medulla one-sixth to one-eighth of
the diameter of the hair ; more distinct when mounted in balsam. — fPZ, 1,

1^9- 2.;

3. — Pteropus melanotus. Blijtli. — Nicobar Islands. — Hair not ex-
amined.

4. — Pteeopus Leschenaultii. Besm. — Southern India. — Hairs not
examined.

5. — Pteropus poliocephalus. Tbrnm.— New Holland.— fP?. 1, fig.^.)

6. — Xantharpyia amplexicatjdata. Terrnn.—Mal&y countries.— Hair
not examined.

GROUP II.

7.— Macroglossus minimus. Geoffr. — (The ' Kiodote, or Dog-Bat.')
Malay countries, &c. — Neck, head, and face, covered with fine short silky
hairs of a brown colour ; on the anterior part of the back and on the
body the hairs are longer and woolly. As the colour is more intense at
the extremity of the separate hairs, different shades of brown and yellowish
gray are exhibited, accoi'ding to the undulations of the surface. Outline of
* All the figures are magnified 540 diameters.

F

56 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

hairs serrated ; scales cylindrical, expanding upwards ; entire at their
margins. In balsam the form of the scales is almost obliterated ; medulla
distinct and large, occupying one -fifth of the diameter, — (PI. 1, fig. 4 dry,
fig. 5 mounted in balsam.)

8. — Cynoptekus maeginatus. Gi'ay. — (The ' Margin-Eared Cynoptere.')
Northern India. — Hairs rather translucent; outline deeply serrated; scales
cylindrical, expanding upwards ; entire at their margins; medulla large and
very distinct in balsam, occupying two-thirds of the diameter of the hair.
In this medium the hair becomes so transparent, that nothing is distinctly
visible but a fringed outline and large medulla. — (PI. 1, fig. 8 dry, fig. 9
ovlien mounted in balsam.)

9. — Cynopterus titthcechilus. Horsf. — Has hair identical with that
of Cynopterus marginatus Horsf., and both are included by Dr. Gray imder
Cynopterus marginatus.

10. — Cynopterus HoRsrxELDii. <yra?/.—(Horsfield's Cynoptere.) Java. —
Hairs translucent, with a serrated outline ; scales rather irregular in size,
cylindrical, expanded, with entire margins ; medulla distinct, when mounted
in balsam occupying one-third of the diameter of the hair. In this medium
the hairs become almost as transparent as those of the last named species. —
(PI. l,figr. 6 dry, fig. 7 when mounted in balsam.)

11. — Cynopterus affinis. <T?-a<^.— Himalayas.— I have not seen the
hairs of this species.

12. — Megaderbia LYRA. Geoffr. — (' Lyre-nosed Vampire.') India gene-
rally, (including Megaderma schistacea Hodgs.) — Hairs translucent, with a
closely serrated outline ; scales somewhat irregular, cylindrical, expanded up-
wards; medulla large and distinct even when examined dry,but becoming more
distinct when viewed in fluid or mounted in balsam ; occupying three-
fourths of the diameter of the hair. — (PI. l,fiy. 10 dry, fig. 11 mhenmaunted
in balsam.)

13.— Megaderma spasma. fi'eojf.—C Cordate Vampire.') Malay countries.
— ^Hairs resembling those of the last species, but more irregular, and with the
margin of the scales often oblique. — (PI. 1, fig. 12.J

14.— Megaderma Hoksfieldii. — Blyth. — Tenasserim provinces. — Hair
not examined.

GEOUP III.

There is a great difference in the diameter of the hairs from the same
animal in the whole of this group. The smaller hairs, which constitute the
under-growth, or fur, are very peculiar. Their zigzag appearance, rough,
gnarled, or knobbed outline, and gi'eat transparency, render them problems
curious enough, but difficult to solve. In this group we encounter the first
indication of what have been facetiously termed the ' sugar-paper scales,'
somewhat obconic scales, with an oblique margin (fig. 61 d.) resembling the
paper cones fabricated by the grocer to contain his ' pound of sugar.' Some-
times the side, sometimes the front, and sometimes the back of a series of
these scales is presented to the observer, giving him very different appear-
ances, and causing the impression of a greater variety than really exists. The

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS. 57

supposed spiral arrangement of the scales in Bat-hair, as alluded to by dif-
ferent -vn-iters, probably originated in the deceptive appearance caused by
these 'sugar-paper scales.'

15.— Rhinolopuus perniger. Hodgs. — ' Sikkim Horse-shoe Bat.'— Nepal,
Sikkim, &c.— Hairs translucent, with rather irregularly serrated outline ;
large hairs with cylindrical expanding scales, the margin irregular, often
oblique; smaller hairs irregular, scales more expanded upwards, with
oblique margin.— ('J'?. I, fig. 13.^

16.— Rhixolophus morio. C'my.- Singapore. — Not examined.

17. — Rhinolophus mitratus. Blyth.—G&Q.ix2k\ India.— Hairs not ex-
amined.

18.— Rhinolophus Pearsoni. ^ors/".- (Pearson's ' Horse-shoe Bat.')—
Sikkim Himalayas.— The length of this bat to the root of the tail is three inches,
and the tail half an inch ; expanse of wing eleven inches ; the colour above
is dark brown, with a slight shade of chesnut, underneath brown, with a sooty
cast ; the fur is very long, dense, and soft. Large hairs translucent ; scales
cylindrical, irregular, close together ; small hairs irregular, with an angu-
larly waved outline ; scales expanding upwards with oblique margin. — (PI.
2, fig. 14 large hair, fig. 15 small hair.)

19.— Rhinolophus brevitarsus. jBZy^A.— Sikkim.— This species I have
not seen.

20. — RHINOLOPH0S tragatus. ^(?<?^s.— ('Nepal Horse-shoe Bat.') —
Himalayas.— Both kinds of hair very similar to those of Rhinolophus
Pearsoni, and scarcely to be distinguished therefrom, except that the smaller
hairs have a less waved and angular outline.— (P?. 2, fig. 16 large hair, fig 17
small hair, in two positions.)

21, — Rhixolophus ajtinis. ^or^/l-C Malayan Horse-shoe Bat.') —
Malay countries, &c.-^Large hairs of the same type as in the species above
described ; small hairs more irregular in outline and angular than in the
last ; margins of the scales scarcely so oblique. — (Small hair, PI. 2, fig,
IS.)

22.— Rhinolophus Rouxi. Tcmm.—(' Bengal Horse-shoe Bat').— Bengal,
&c. — Large hairs with the margins of the scales more or less oblique ; small
hairs straight, usually regular in outline, slender, with attenuated scales of
the ' sugar-paper ' type, resembling those of Rhiiwlojjhns tragatus, but
longer, and slightly darker and more striate in balsam. — (Large hair, PI. 2,
fig. 19.;

23. — Rhinolophus minor. Horsf. — (' Little Horse-shoe Bat.') — Java. —
Is apparently only a variety of the above. — (PI. 2, fjg- 20, large hair.)

24. — Rhinolophus sub-badius. Hodgs, Nepal. — Character of the hair
unknown.

25. — Rhinolophus macrotis. Hodgs, Himalayas. — Hair not ex-
amined.

26. — Hipposideros akmiger. .Sb<7^s.— ('Hodgson's Horse-shoe Bat.')
Himalayas. — All the hairs larger than in the majority of species in this
genus ; large hairs scarcely serrate at the edge ; scales irregular, margin
often oblique ; small hairs cylindrical, expanded, with oblique margins as in

F 2

58 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS,

the other species of the ' sugar-paper' type. (PI. 12, fg. 21 large
hair.)

27. — HiPPOSiDEROS DiADEMA. Horsf. (' Golden Horse-shoe Bat.')— More
or less of an intense reddish or gi-ayish brown above, assuming a golden
lustre in certain lights, of a lighter gi-ayish brown beneath ; hairs smaller
than the last, but similar 'in form ; clear and transparent in balsam. This
may probably not be the true RMnolophus diadema of Geffroy. — (PI. 11,
fig. 22.)

28. — HiPPOSiDEROS Lankadiva. JTeZ.— Ceylon. — Hair not examined.

29.— HIPPOSIDEROS INSIGNIS. ^ors/".— Malay Islands. — Hairs semi-
transparent ; large hairs serrated ; scales cylindi-ical, expanded, distinct,
sometimes nearly plane, at others, oblique at the margin ; small hairs as in
other species. (PI. 2, fig. 23, large Mir.)

30. — HIPPOSIDEROS NOBILIS. Hors/.—Q Noble Horse-shoe Bat.')—
Bunnese and Malay countries. — " Colour above pure brown, and underneath
brown variegated with gray ; the fur is long and silky, and supplied with a
most delicate down at the base, so as to be throughout very soft to the
touch." (Horsfield, Zool. Ees.) Larger hairs translucent, with a serrated
outline ; scales cylindrical, expanded, entire, slightly undulated at the margin ;
small hairs regular, with a scarcely serrated outline ; scales cylindi-ical,
but little expanded, close, with oblique margins. — (PI, 11, fig. 24, large
Tiair.)

31. — HIPPOSIDEROS LARVATUS. Horsf.— ('Masked Horse-shoe Bat.')
Sylhet, Java, &c. — " Colour of a deep brown above, with a golden lustre more
intense posteriorly ; underneath, the hairs have a lighter golden tint ; the
long silky hairs are very soft to the touch and closely invest the body both
above and beneath." (Horsfield), Large hairs serrated ; scales cylindrical,
margins nearly plane ; small hairs, regular, scales compact, of the ' sugar-
paper' type. — (^Pl. 2, fig. 26, small hair.')

32.— HIPPOSIDEROS VULGARIS. i7i7rs/".—(' Java Horse-shoe Bat.') Java. —
Large hairs resembling those of the last species ; scales sometimes of the
form represented by fig. 61 h ; small hairs, slender, irregular, with a waved
and angular outline ; scales of the same form as in other species. (^Pl . 2,
fig. 25, small hair). — This is regarded by Mr. Blyth as the same with the
foregoing.

33,— HIPPOSIDEROS SPEORIS. Bhjfh Southern India, &c.— This is

believed by Mr. Blyth to include Rhinolophvs apiculatus Gray, and
Rhinolo2)hns penicellaUts Gray.— The hairs of none of these forms examined.

34. — HiPPOSiDEROS CIKERACETJS. Blyth. Punjab.- Hair not ex-
amined.

35.— HIPPOSIDEROS MURINUS. Elliott.— {' Mouse-coloured Horseshoe
Bat.') — S. India, &c. — Large hairs more opaque and deeply coloured than in
other species : almost smooth at the edge ; scales often resembling ^^. 61 b. ;
small hairs slender, often regular and straight ; scales attenuated, cylindri-
cal, with oblique margins. — (^Pl. 2, fig 27, small hair near the base.)

36. — HIPPOSIDEROS FULVUS. 6^ray.— (Madras.)— Is refen-ed by Mr.
Blyth to the foregoing species.

M. C. COOKE ON THE IIAIUS 0¥ INDIAN BATS. * 59

37.— HiPPOSiDEROS BicoLOR. — rcm?».— (Java.)— Hair not examined.

38.— CcELOPS Fkithii. i7?yi/t.— (Behgal.)— The typical specimen in the
Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal is believed to be unique.

39.— NycterisJavanica. 6*c;({^.— ('Javanese Nycteris.')— Malay countries.
—Small hairs, with a rather deeply serrated outline ; • scales cylindrical, with
an oblique margin ; larger hairs less deeply serrated, and the margin of the
scales seldom oblique (Jiff. 61 c.) ; both kmds transparent, so that the out-
line of the scales may be seen through their substance ; very transparent in
balsam, but the margins of the scales still distinctly visible.— ('PL 11,

GROUP IV.

Hairs Characterised by the Serrated Margins of the

Scales.

40.— Rhinopoma Hardwickii. Gray. — (' Indian Rhinopome.') — India,
&c.— Hairs somewhat translucent, with a deeply and acutely serrated outline;
scales funnel shaped, with a broadly notched margin, expanding at the apex
to twice the diameter of their base ; in the larger hau's the scales are
closer together than in the smaller ones ; shaft near the root tapering (fig.
37^ and nearly bare, colourless and transparent.— ('PZ. 2, figs. 29. 30,^

41.— Rhinopoma microphylla. Geoffr. — (' Egyptian Rhinopome.')
Egj'pt.— The hairs are very similar to those of the last species, except that
the margins to the scales appear to possess a larger number and more acute
teeth. Some of the hairs are not distinguishable from those of Bliinopoma
EardwieMi.—(Pl. 2, fig. 31.J

42.— Taphozous saccolaimus. Temm. — India, &c. — Hair not ex-
amined.

43. — Taphozous longimAnus. Hardm. — ('Long-armed Taphozous.')
India, &c. — Body thickly covered with a very soft hair : in the adult it is of
a snuff-brown, but the full-sized young are of a deep black on all parts.
Hardwiche .) Hairs with a deeply serrated outline ; scales funnel-shaped,
with a serrated margin which is twice the diameter of the shaft ; serratures
of scales irregular ; base of the shaft near the root transparent, colourless,
and swollen in a fusiform manner {PI. 2, fig. 36), a feature not observed in
any other species. — (PI. 2, fig. 32.^

44. — Taphozous melanopogon. Temm. — (' Black-bearded Taphozous.')
India, Java, &c. — The hairs of this species have a close resemblance to the
last. The scales are, perhaps, a little more attenuated, but the distinctions
are very slight.— ('PZ. 2, fig. 33, J

45. — Cheiromeles toequatus. ^ors/"- Sumatra, Java, &c.^Hair so
short and sparse that the animal ajjpears to be nearly naked.

46.— Nyctinomus insignis. Blyth. — China.— Hair not examined.

47. — Ny'CTINOMUS plicatus. Bhjth. — (' Groove-cheeked Bat ') — Bengal
and Malay countries. — This includes the Nyctinomus tenuis of Horsfield. —
The body is deep brown, inclining to sooty black, intense above, and grayish
underneath ; the fur is extremely soft and delicate, closely arranged, and

60 M, C, COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS.

of uniform length throughout. {Horsfield.) The hairs are translucent,
with an acutely sen-ated outline ; the scales are cylindrical, expanding up-
wards, rather distant, with a toothed margin ; the hairs are transparent, and
of a lighter tint than those of either species of Ehinopoma or Taphozous —
(PL 2, Jig. 34.;

48.— Topping's Indian Bat (Species unknown.— (Hairs rather opaque,
dark coloured, with a very deeply serrated outline ; scales trumpet- shaped,
expanding at the margin to nearly three times the diameter of the shaft
(fig. 61 a.); margin with numerous acute teeth, — (PI. 2, fig. 35 .J

49. — Australian Bat. (Species unknown.)— Hairs rather opaque, dark
coloured, with a deeply notched outline ; scales broadly cup-shaped ; more
than three times the diameter of the shaft ; margin with numerous teeth. —
(Pl.2,fig.Zi.)

GROUP V.

50.— NocTULiNiA Malaccensis. Gray. — Singapore.— Hair not ex-
amined.

51.— Noctulinia noctula. Bell. — (' Himalayas') — Europe.— Hair not
examined.

62.— Ntcticejus oenatxjs. Blyth. — (' Blyth's Nycticejus.')— Himalayas.

Hairs semi-transparent, with slightly serrated outline ; scales indistinct,
seldom wholly surrounding the shaft ; margins usually more or less oblique.
Hairs of all the species of this genus very transparent in balsam, and the
scales apparently imbricated.^('PZ. 2, fig. 39.J

53.— Nycticejus Heathii. Hor«f. Southern India.— Hair not ex-
amined.

54.— Ntcticejus luteus. Blyth. — (N.flaveolus'&i.., Yellow Nycticejus.)
Bengal, &c. — The colour varies considerably in different individuals, being
dark -brown above, in different shades, and rufous or yellowish underneath.
(Horsfield.) Hairs similar in all the species, scarcely to be iistinguished
from each other ; the scales of the haii's in this species are usually alter-
nate, only half surrounding the shaft. — (PI. 2, fig. 40.;

55.— Nycticejus Temmenckii. i?brs/'.—('Temminck's Nycticejus.')— India
and Malay countries. — A peculiar character is afforded to this species by the
shortness of its fur ; the colour is pure dark brown above, grayish brown,
somewhat dusky underneath, with a rufous tint {Horsfield) ; hairs semi-
transparent, slightly serrated ; scales sometimes encircling the shaft, and at
others only partially. The hairs of this, and also of the preceding, demand
further and more complete examination. — (PI. 2, fig. 41.;

56.— Nycticejus castaneus. Gray — (' Chestnut Nycticejus.').— Malay
countries ; Bengal. — The characteristic feature of this species. Dr. Horsfield
says, is the uniform deep chestnut colour of the body above and beneath ;
the hairs are semi-transparent under the microscope, with but slightly
serrated margins ; the scales appear to be usually cylinth-ical, with irregular
margins, but sometimes only partially surround the shaft. — (PI. 2, fig. 43.;

57.— Nycticejus Tickelli. Blyth.— (N. isalellims Bl.,— Central India.)
— Hair not examined.

M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OP INDIAN BATS. 61

58.— Ntcticejus atratus. Blyth. — Sikkim.— Hair not examined.
59. — Ntcticejus c.vnus. ^^yjJ/t.— Bengal, &c.— Hair not examined.
60.— Nycticejus nivicolus. Hodgs. — Himalayas. — Hair not ex-
amined.

GROUP VI.

61.— ScoToniiLUS SEROTINUS. Geoffr.—Emo^Q; Himalayas. — Hair not
examined.

62.— SCOTOPHILUS Leisleri. Bell. — Europe ; Himalayas,— Hair not ex-
amined.

63.— SCOTOPHILUS FULVIDUS. Blyth. — Tenasserim provinces. — Hair not
examined.

64:.— SCOTOPHILUS COROMANDELINUS. Blyth.~Q Coromandel Bat.')
India, &c. — Larger hairs with a minutely serrated outline, flattened ; scales
close, encircling, or only half encircling the shaft ; smaller hairs broadly
and deeply serrated ; scales dark towards the margin, irregular, opposite or
alternate, semi-ambient ; shaft transparent. In balsam the larger hairs are
transparent, the smaller are striated.- fPZ. 3, fig. ii.)

65. — SCOTOPHILUS FULIGINOSUS. Hodgs.—J^Q^al—R&iT not examined.

66.— SCOTOPHILUS PACHYONYX. Tomes. — India.— Hair not examined.

67.— SCOTOPHILUS HoDGSONi. fi'rfly.- Calcutta.— Hair not examined.

68.— SCOTOPHILUS LOBATUS. Grmj.—{' The Lobed Bat.') India— Both
kinds of hair very similar to those of Scotojihihis Coromandelinus ; scales of
the smaller hairs, but slightly coloured, closer together, and more regular
towards the apices of the hair ; in balsam the striation renders the scales
very distinct in the smaller hairs ; as in other species of this genus the
small hairs are evidently f^2Liien&A,—( Small hair pi. 3, fig. 45 ; large hair fig.

46.)

69.— SCOTOPHILUS Maderaspatanus. Gray — (' The Madras Bat.')
Madras.— Larger and smaller hairs of the same type as in the other species ;
opaque and dark- coloured ; serratures of the outline not so deep, and
the scales of the smaller hairs less spreading ; the opacity and darker
colour distinguish these hairs from others of the same genus ; very much
striated when viewed in balsam. — (Small hair pi. 3, fig. 47.^

70.— SCOTOPHILUS FALCATUS. 6!^7'ay.— India.— Hair not examined.

71.— SCOTOPHILUS FULVUS. Gray. — Madras, Java.— Hair not ex-
amined.

72.— SCOTOPHILUS Leachii. Gray. — India.— Hair not examined.

73.— Lasiuirus Pearsoni. ^ors/.— ('Pearson's Bat.')— Himalayas, &c.
—Fur soft, thick, and rather long ; on the upper parts tri-coloured, dusky
at the base, succeeded by yellowish grey, and rufous at the tips ; the gene-
ral tint of the under parts palish brown ; hair translucent, nearly smooth,
with a scarcely indented outline ; scales cylindrical, closely appressed, with
entire margins ; there is great variability in the dimensions of the hairs,
some being one third the diameter of others. — (Small hair, pi. 3, fig. 48.
Large hair, fig. id.)

62 M. C. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF IXDIAN BATS.

74.— MUEINA sciLLA. Tcmm. — Himalayas, Java, &c.— Hair not ex-
amined.

75.- Kerivoula pallida. jBZyfA.— Central India. — Hair not ex-
amined.

76.— Keeivoula picta, Temin.—(Y:hs, ' Kerivoula.') — Bengal, Burmah,
&c.— Fur of the body fine, without gloss, and nearly uni-coloured ; that of the
upper parts bufl', with rust-coloured tips, of the under parts whitish buff ;
the larger hairs are slightly serrated ; scales cylindrical, expanding upwards,
with the margins entire and oblique ; small hairs truncated-obconic, with
oblique margins (%. Gl d^ of the form described as ' sugar-paper scales.' —
(Small hair, pi. 3,fiff. 50. Large hair, Jiff. 51. J

77. — Keeivoula Formosa. Hodgs. — Nepal, China. — Hair not ex-
amined.

78. — Kerivoula papillosa. J«»m.— (The 'Dusky Kerivoula.')— Ben-
gal, Ceylon. — The fur is fine and woolly in texture, and very long ; it is bi-
coloured, both above and beneath ; on the whole of the upper parts it is
dusk at the base, with the terminal third brown ; beneath, it is dusky,
tipped with yellowish brown (Tomes.) Large hairs closely and slightly ser-
rated ; scales cylindrical, short, and compact, with scarcely oblique margins ;
small hairs deeply and alternately serrated ; scales half surrounding the
shaft {fig. 61 c.) coloured more deeply towards their free margin. — (PI. 3,
fig. 52 large hair, fig. 53 small liair.)

79.— Kerivoula Sykesil Gray. — Calcutta. — Hair not examined.
80.— Keeivoula Hardwickii. Gray.— (Hardwick's ' Kerivoula.')— Java.
— The fur is long, very fine, and woolly ; that of the upper parts grey at the
base, succeeded by a pale brown, and tipped with a slightly darker tint ;
general appearance buffy brown. {Tomes.) Large hairs resembling those of
Kerivoula picta (fig. 51J ; small hairs, witli truncated, obconic scales, with
an oblique margin ('sugar-paper' scales), rather more expanding than in
Kerivoula picta — (PI. 3, fig. 54 J

81.— Kerivoula tralatitioides. 6^r«y.— Java.— Hair not examined.
82. — Vespeetilio adversus. ^o?'.?/. —(' Pallid Vespertilio.')— Bengal,
Java, &c. — Fur every soft, long, and silky ; above grayish brown, and under-
neath whitish ; the tips of the hairs on the upper parts have a light grey-
ish tint; and underneath, the silky down of the fur is greyish brown
(Horsfield) . Microscopically this hair resembles that of Plecotvs. The ser-
ratures are deep and very decided, sometimes opposite, and sometimes alter-
nate ; the scales generally only half investing the shaft ; the free margins
darker than the base, which becomes very distinct in balsam. — (PI. 3, fig.
55.;

83.— Vespeetilio mueicola. iZi^^f^/s.— Nepal.— Hair not examined.
84.— Vespeetilio mystacinus. ieis^.— Sikkim.— Hair not examined.
85.— Vespeetilio Blythii. T<???ies.— India.— Hair not examined.
86.— Vespeetilio caliginosus. Tomes.— In^ia.—'B.sXr not examined.
87.— Vespeetilio Siligoeensis. i7w7<7s.-(' Hodgson's Vespertilio.')—
N. India. — Large hairs serrated ; scales cylindrical, expanding upwards ;
margin rather oblique ; small hairs slightly serrated ; scales of the ' sugar-

M. (;. COOKE ON THE HAIRS OF INDIAN BATS. 63

paper ' type, closely 'packed, small, and scarcely so spreading as in any
species of Kcrivoula. — (PI. 3, Jiff. 57 hu-ffc hair, fig. 5G small hiir.)

88.— Vespertilio imbbicatus. Horsf.—Q Horsfield's Vespertilio.')—
Java. — " Fur both above and underneath is brown with a fulvous lustre,"
(Horsjield) ; large hairs nearly smooth at the edge ; scales crowded and
appressed; small hairs serrated; scales cylindrical, nearly plane, margin
entire or sinuated, when viewed in balsam striate. (PI. 3, fig. 58.J

89.— Vespertilio tralatitius. fforftf.—(' Sooty Vespertilio.')— Java
and Sumatra.— " Fur of moderate length, of a sooty black tint above, under-
neath sooty with a grayish cast," (Horsfield) ; large hairs minutely
seiTated at the edge ; smaller hairs more broadly and deeply serrated ;
serratures opposite or alternate ; scales generally investing the shaft ;
margin waved, often oblique, slightly coloured ; hairs becoming transparent
and slightly striate in balsam. — {PI. 3, fig. 59.)
90. — Vespertilio blepotis. Gray. — Timor. — Hair not examined.
91.— Myotis MURESfUS. ^6'ZZ.— Europe, Himalayas.— Hair not ex-
amined.

92.— Myotis Berdmorei. ^Zy^A.— Tenasserim provinces.— Hair not ex-
amined.

93.— Myotis pipistrellus. ^eZZ.- Europe, Himalaya (?)
94.— Myotis Theobaldi. ^Zy^/i.— Masuri.>— Hair not examined.
95.— Myotis parvipes. i?^y^/t.—Kasbmir.— Hair not examined.
96.— Myotis lepidus. Blgfh.—B.aiv not examined.
97. — Plecotus homochrous. Hodgs.— {''Nepal eared bat.')— Nepal. —
Hairs flattened, with a deeply notched or serrated outline ; serratures opposite
or alternate; scales semi-ambient, darkened towards their free margin,
scarcely to be distinguished, except in size, from the following ; the figures in
the plate do not sufficiently indicate this difference. — (PL 3, fig. 60 Jiair as
seen in balsam, fig. 62 huir mounted dry.)

98.— Plecotus Darjelingensis. IIodgs.— {' ^Wikim. eared bat.')— Sik-
kim. — Hairs flattened, smaller than in the above, with a deeply notched or
serrated outline ; serratures opposite or alternate ; scales semi-ambient, dark-
ened at the margin; striate in balsam. — (PI. 3, fig. 63, 64; liair in two
positions.)

Both the foregoing are undoubtedly identical with the British species
Plecotus auritus. Bell.

99.— Barbastellus communis. Cray.— Europe, Himalayas.— Hair
not examined.

100. — Nyctophilus Geoffroyi. Leach. — Europe, Himalayas. — Hair
not examined.

*

Note. — The author would be glad to receive specimens of the hair of any
of the species not yet examined, if the individuals from which the hair is de-
rived are well authenticated.

64

Some Suggestions on Oblique Illumination. By W. Hislop.
(Read Febmary 28th, 1868.J

The effect of passing the illuminating ray through a transparent
medium of considerable refractive power, such as that which is pre-
sented by the ordinary glass slide, is not sufficiently considered by
microscopists, and hence leads to considerable misajiprehension, and
in the act of manipulation to great loss of time and uncertainty of
result. A moderate knowledge of the fundamental laws of optics
or mechanics will often prevent us from attempting that which is
impossible, as well as enable us to refer to their right causes the
failures which we meet with. Thus, a man who understands the
elementary principles of the science of Mechanics, and is practi-
cally acquainted with its details, even in a moderate degree, would
hardly fall into the too common error of seeking for a machine to
produce perpetual motion, or into the still more common one of en-
deavouring to originate force. And so with the somew^hat more
abstnise science of Optics. The law^s of refraction are fixed, and
we shall only succeed in our investigations when they are carried
out in subjection to these known and immutable laws.

All objects which are permanently mounted so as to be viewed
by transmitted light, are placed upon a plate composed of some
transparent medium which is almost exclusively composed of glass.
The means of illumination are various ; direct light, or light re-
flected from the surface of a mirror, or through a prism, are
severally used according to the fancy or means of the operator.
This light is again often modified by pieces of apparatus called
condensers, which, by their variety, complication, and consequent
difficulty of manipulation, frequently bewilder the earnest student.
But in all these cases we must remember that the ray of light, after
it leaves our apparatus, whether that apparatus be simple or com-
plex, does not reach our object without suffering a change, if that
object be, as usual, supported on a plate of glass. Let us now
suppose that we are examining — say, a frustule of Pleurosigma
angulatum in the usual way. If it w'ere possible to obtain a beam
of light of which the component rays should be perfectly parallel,
and if this parallelism could be so kept through object, objective,
and eyepiece into the eye, we should probably observe the object

W. HISLOP ON OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION. 65

only in outline, and it would not be magnified ; as it is, when we
get our rays as nearly parallel as possible, they pass through the
slide and the object, enter the objective (where the parallelism
ceases), reach the eye through the eyepiece, and the object is seen
with more or less distinctness, according to the quality of the
objective. But we find, if we turn the mirror sideways from the
axis of the instrument, so as to cause the ray of light to impinge on
the surface of the slide at an angle, that we may obtain a more
distinct view of both the outline and detail of the object; but in so
doing, we have introduced a very important change in the condition
of the ray of light, — it has become refracted or bent, according to
fixed laws, when it touched the first surface of the slide.

Permit me here to allude to certain phenomena, which are, no
doubt, comprehended by members of the Club, but which it is neces-
sary to demonstrate in order to make myself clearly understood.

It is a law of refraction that a ray of light becomes bent when
it passes from a medium of a certain density into one of greater
density at any other angle than a right angle ; hence a stick
plunged into water appears bent at a point coincident with the
surface of the water. If it were possible to plunge it into glass, it
would appear more bent, because glass is a denser medium than
water. The ray of light is refracted towards the perpendicular,
when passing from air into water or glass (see Fig. l,pL ^) ; but if
the ray pass in the opposite direction — that is, out of a dense into a
rarer medium — the bending is away from the perpendicular. If the
medium be a plate of glass, with parallel sides, the ray is bent
towards the perpendicular when passing through the glass, and
away from it and parallel to its original direction when it leaves
the glass again. (Fig. 2, pi. A.)

The result of all this is that our ray of light which we have pro-
bably set at a certain angle — say 30 degrees from the perpendicu-
lar — passes through the glass at a considerably less angle, and
leaves the glass and impinges upon the object at the original angle,
provided the object be in the same medium as the original ray —
that is to say, provided it be not mounted in balsam or fluid. If
the object be mounted in balsam, that medium having nearly the
same refractive or bending power as glass, the ray will not impinge
upon the object at so great an angle as that of its original direc-
tion. The same effect takes place in fluid, but in a reduced
degree.

QQ W. HISLOP ON OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION.

But each case of bending or refraction has to a certain extent
decomposed the ray of light;— it is no longer in the same state ;
dispersion has taken place, and colour has been produced which
will often puzzle the observer, leading him to blame his object
glass or his condenser, unless he is quite conversant with the dif-
ferent effects of chromatic aberration in these two combinations
for widely different purposes.

But there is yet a phenomenon to be noticed, which is also in-
variable in its effects. If we incline our mirror still .further from
the axis of the microscope, we shall find that we shall arrive at a
point when the light no longer passes through the slide, is no
longer transmitted, but reflected ; and at a certain angle for differ-
ent media, this becomes total reflexion. The angle of total reflex-
ion for water is given at 96°, and for glass at 83°. This very
interesting and beautiful phenomenon, which almost seems to
shew the materiaUty of light, forms the principle of construction
of some of the best optical appliances used in the microscope. In
the right angled prism, for instance, which makes the best reflector
known (Fig. S,pl. 4j, we have a figure of three sides, two of which
are at right angles, or 90° with each other, and the third at an
angle of 45° with the other two. A ray of fight impinging per-
pendicularly upon the upper surface, passes through without
change, but striking upon the inner surface dividing the glass
from another medium of less density (namely, the air), it becomes
reflected (not refracted), and passes out of the other face of the
prism unbent, unaltered and therefore achromatic.

Take again the glass reflector used for the table polariscope. At a
certain angle a portion of the rays having passed through the glass
and impinged upon a non-reflecting surface, are absorbed, and the
remainder are reflected in a polarised condition from the surface,
if we observe at what is known as the polarising angle, which is
for glass 56° 45'. If we increase this angle, total reflexion ensues,
and the ray, resuming its original condition, is merely bent or re-
flected from the surface of the glass.

It follows from these considerations that there is a practical
limit to the angle at which rays of light can be transmitted from
one medium into another. In other words, we cannot pass rays of
light through a plate of glass so as to impinge upon an object on the
upper surface of that glass beyond a certain angle. If we employ
such means as lenses to modify our illumination, we shall have

W. HISLOP ON OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION. 67

converging rays of light at different angles with the surface.
Of these rays, those only which are within the angle of total re-
flexion for glass, will be transmitted at all ; while those which do
pass will be partly polarised, and have the total angle diminished
within the transparent medium. (Fig. 4, pi, 4. J Thus, when we in-
crease the aperture of our condensers, we often find confusion and
fog, not from the quantity of light alone, but because an amount of
reflection and dispersion has taken place which we are not able
to control.

There are three remedies for this state of things, by which we
may cause rays of light beyond the limit of partial or total reflex-
ion to impinge upon our object. In a paper read in 1856, before
the Microscopical Society of London, Mr. Wenham describes a
method of transmitting a cone of rays at a great angle, by
placing beneath the slide a prism or lens, with water, or better,
oil of cloves, interposed between the two surfaces. The* object
was to get rays through at such an angle, that they would
be reflected from the inner surface of the glass cover down upon
the object, and so illuminate it as an opaque object ; thus taking
advantage of this property of total reflexion for a different purpose.
But if we take a similar hemispherical lens, and attach it tempor-
arily to the under surface of our slide by means of some medium
as nearly as possible of the same density as glass, such as balsam
or oil of cloves, we shall be able to transmit a very large angle of
light. (Fig. 5, pi. A.) Tliis method will be chiefly available for
objects mounted in balsam.

Another method is to adopt the principle of immersion em-
ployed with some of the continental objectives, by applying it to
the condenser. A drop of distilled water, or better, of oil of
cloves, placed on the upper surface of the condenser, and touching
the under surface of the slide, will transmit a pencil of a larger
angle than can otherwise be done.

Another method which I would suggest, is applied to the
mounting of the object, and enables any degree of angle of illumina-
tion to be used, but has the disadvantage that the objects so
mounted are more liable to injury than by the usual method. The
structures which we require to examine by oblique light are very
minute, such as diatoms. A drop of water containing the organism
is spread on the surface of a clean thin glass disc, and dried by
gentle heat. The minute particles so dried adhere with consider-

68 W. HISLOP ON OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION.

able tenacity to the glass. This disc is then mounted, objects
downwards, on the ordinary wooden slide, with a large well
chamfered central opening, and secured either by a slip of paper,
by another slide superposed, or any other convenient means.
(Fig. 6, pi. 4:.) The surfaces exposed to light should be coloured a
dead black. If laid object downwards in the drawer, no dust can
fall on the preparation, or it may be covered, if thought desirable,
by a small envelope when out of use.

I regret that want of time has prevented me from completing
a course of comparative examinations of various structures under
the conditions 1 have endeavoured to describe.

At a future meeting I may probably be able to state the result of
these observations.

69

Some Cheap Aids to Microscopical Studies. By S. J.

McIntire.

{Read March 27th, 1868.)

My object in the few brief remarks I am about to make is to
bring forward certain cheap appliances, from which I have derived
great assistance in my microscopical recreations, aud which I can
confidently recommend to the members of this club.

The first of these is an apparatus for the examination of such an
object as a hve flea, but it is available as a disc-holder in all cases
where the observer can dispense with the refinements of optical
work. It consists of a flat piece of mahogany, about four inches
by two inches, and one-third of an inch thick, with a perforation
in the centre, about 1^ inches in diameter. A little cube of cork
occupies the centre of the perforation, and is kept in its place by a
piece of straight wire passing through it and the greater part of
the long diameter of the block of wood. The free end of the wire
has a round knob on it, enabling the little cube of cork to be
rotated. (I use a hair pin and a glass bead.) To examine a flea,
I first stupify it with chloroform, and then fix it to the cube in the
position desired with a little strong gum arable. By the time the
gum is hard the effects of the choloform have passed off, and then
a better view of a flea is obtained with the assistance of the two-
thirds objective and Lieburkuhn than by any other means that I am
acquainted with.* This apparatus may be used with advantage in
the attempt to penetrate the mystery as to the functions of the
pygidium. I was told that the pygidium is an organ of sensation,
and that by blowing gently upon the insect, the long hairs from
the centre of each of the areola in that object would vibrate. The
vibration may certainly be seen, but as it is also to be produced by
similar means after the death of the flea, it is not to be considered
demonstrative proof of this supposed function ; though I think it
probable that the theory is true. By the time the discussion on the
subject takes place at this club, perhaps some members may be able
in consequence of their investigations, to give an opinion.

The second piece of apparatus is one for the examination of a
tadpole, and I have the permission of the inventor, Mr. Alexander
* I borrowed the hint from Mr. Archer.

70 J, S. MC'iNTIRE ON CHEAP AIDS TO MICROSCOPICAL STUDIES,

Fitzgerald, the associate of Mr. Whitney in his researches on
that interesting creature, to bring it under the notice of the club.
Two pieces of stout brass, about five inches by two inches, hav-
ing large central perforations, over which thin glass is placed, are
kept apart by a very stout India-rubber ring and bound together
at the ends by screws, which are entirely removable. Few pieces
of optical apparatus are so simple, and no animalculae cage or
compressorium that I know of answers the particular purpose
for which this was made so perfectly. Not many observers are
aware of the wonderful sight that the interior economy of the
tadpole of the frog affords for a few days during its life ; per-
haj)s three days, four at most. At this period the skin of the
belly is nearly transparent, and the blood in the internal gills
and heart has become conspicuously brilliant — I suppose from its
increased quantity. But I will not venture to describe the sight,
as I fear I should soon get out of my depth in the attempt to
deal with a subject so purely physiological. It is, nevertheless,
most interesting and wonderful, as affording more than a glimpse
of some of the mysterious operations going on in the very seat
of life. To use the apparatus the two pieces of brass are
separated, enabling the tadpole and a spoonful of water to be
introduced into the cell formed by the India-rubber ring, which
must be of proper thickness. Then the top piece of brass is put
in its place, and the ends are screwed tightly together. The ends
of the screws should permit either side of the apparatus to be up-
permost on the stage of the microscope. The tadpole must be
examined belly upwards, a position it cannot endure, so it makes
violent efforts to right itself, and if the ring be too thick it will
succeed, and turn over ; on the other hand, if it be too thin the
tadpole may be crushed by the pressure. Thus, rings of varying
thickness are necessary. The inch and half power is the best for
examination, and some means of condensing the light from the
mirror must be adopted. The best effects I have seen were with
Smith and Beck's 1^ objective and Powell's condenser, from which
the front lenses had been removed.*

I feel strongly tempted to speak of Mr. Curties's new growing
slides, having for a long time past had a partiality for the cells
he has improved upon by the addition of a sliding cover, but

* A common spot lens, with adjustable spot, answers admirably for similar
purposes. — Ed.

S. J. MC'iNTIRE ON CHEAP AI0S TO MICROSCOPICAL STUDIES. 71

any comments of mine on their merits are unnecessary, since
tliey are already known to many of our members.* I liave been
keeping some aquatic specimens in them during the past fort-
night and upwards ; and during that period repeated observations
have convinced me that those who ivill, have it in their power
cheaply, and without much trouble, to write many fresh chapters
of the " marvels of pond life."

Breeding Cages for Microscopic Specimens.

When I had the pleasure of calling the attention of this club
to the subject of Podur^e I alluded to certain wooden cells which
I had found of great use in my investigations. Since then I
have had abundant experience of their utility, but having men-
tioned to Dr. Gray the only difficulty I encountered at times —
that of the cells warping when wetted — he suggested the em-
ployment of sheet cork, siTch as is sold for lining entomological
cabinets. I tried it, and after about three months' experience I
have every reason to be much obliged to Dr. Gray for the sug-
gestion. For most of the purposes to which I have applied
them, they are now perfectly adapted, and exceedingly cheap, a
dozen of them costing about half a crown. I make them thus : —
A sheet of cork (varying in price from 4d. to Is. or more, according
to its thickness and quality), is cut into six or eight pieces, about
two inches by three and a half inches An oval hole is punched
out of the centre of each, and the edge of the aperture filed away in
a gradually sloping direction. 1 then take a piece of stout plate
glass of the same size, and put seven or eight layers of blotting
paper on it.f Then on this I place the cork cell just made, and on
the top a cover of the thinnest plate glass I can get, which I prefer
to be only a little larger than the aperture of the cell, and bind the
whole together with india-rubber bands.

Having put the captives into the cell, I dip the end of it into
water, which immediately finds its way into the interior, aided by
the blotting paper. Food is introduced by slipping the cover a
little to one side, and if care is taken that the inmates are not sub-
jected to many changes of temperature, but kept cool, and that
sufficient, yet not too much food • and moisture are introduced,
observations on individual microscopic insects may be continued for

* See page 46.

1 1 prefer to use the very best cork, and pink blotting paper.

G

72 S. J. Mc'iNTIRE ON CHEAP AIDS TO MICROSCOPICAL STUDIES.

months. As an instance, I exhibit a nest of Podurse, the indi-
viduals in which have furnished me with many hours of interesting
employment during the past two months. Other specimens not so
delicate as the Podur^e, have been in captivity for nearly a whole
year in cells similar to those I am describing. In one I have
eight specimens of the white Podurse (a peculiarly delicate insect),
which were imj^risoned last October, i.e., five months ago, and they
still seem quite contented.

Provided with a good many of these cells, or similar ones, and
determined to use them, I think our microscopical friends will find
a new mode of utilising their captures of rare specimens, and a store
of intellectual enjoyment in watching their habits and peculiarities,
far beyond that found in merely multiplying the objects in their
cabinets, even omitting all consideration of the value in a scientific
point of view, that such observations possess.

Aided by these cells, I have been able to ascertain several addi-
tional interesting facts in the history of my microscopical pets.
Thus, I am now quite certain that the species of Chelifer which I
had the pleasure of describing last October is able to spin a web,
and spends the winter in a silken home of its own making ; but if
the web be destroyed, it will desert the ruins of it to enter the web
of another Chelifer, disputing possession with the rightful owner.
The Podurae, too, I find are occasionally guilty of cannibalism, eat-
ing up their dead brethren with evident satisfaction.

73

On Podur^. By S. J. M'Intire.
(Read April 2Uh, 1868.;

Having lately, through the kindness of a friend, had the quiet
perusal of Sir John Lubbock's three papers in the " Transactions
of the Linnean Society," on the Thysanura, I beg to offer the fol-
lowing corrections and remarks on the notes upon Podurae, which
I had the pleasure of reading in November, 1866, and which ap-
pear, with illustrations, in " Science Gossip," vol. 3, page 53, &c.

The first illustration, figure 37, is Isotoma trifasciata, a species
often occurring amongst moss in wet places, and at the roots of old
trees. It is of a greenish yellow colour, with purplish brown
patches, forming three, more or less, continuous bands down the
back ; — hence its name. The genus Isotoma has the four anterior
abdominal segments sub-equal, and the two posterior segments
small. It has hairs, but no scales ; its antennas are four-jointed
and longer than the head, the segments being sub-equal, and the
eyes are seven in number on each side, and arranged in the form
of the letter S. Several species have been noted in England
already.

Figures 38, 39, 40, 42, and 48, all refer to the genus Lepido-
cyrtus, probably L. curvicollis. From continued observations on
the life history of this genus, I conclude that at different periods
the creature wears different aspects. Thus, on escaping from the
^gg, it is plentifully supplied with hairs, which, I think, are
clubbed similar to those which Sir John Lubbock says are peculiar
to Degeeria and Orchesella only. At the 6rst moult these hairs
disappear, and slight iridescence is acquired, which in subse-
quent moults is increased, as is also the humped appearance or
curvature of the neck, shown in figure 39, representing adult speci-
mens. The renewal of the scaly armour is frequent ; and since the
skin below the scales is of a yellowish white, a specimen captured
shortly previous to the operation is very likely to be taken for a
different species. Questions that have been put to me by several
members of the club on this point, satisfy me that this is a very
frequent mistake. After the change, the colour, to the unassisted
eye, is dull leaden black, but under the microscope, gorgeously iri-
descent. Large scales, the standard tests of the opticians, are

G 2

74 8. J. MC'iNTIRE ON PODUR^.

found only on certain of tlie largest insects, perhaps adnlt males ;
but I have not worked out this difficult question yet. The dis-
tinguishing characteristics of the genus Lepidocyrtus are : — abdomi-
nal segments unequal, with simple hairs and scales ; antennsB long,
four-jointed; eyes, eight on each side.

Figures 41, 43, 44, 45, and 49 refer to Degeeria nigromaculata.
The genus Degeeria is one in which the species do not appear to be
uniformly furnished with scales. Some are supplied instead, with
a great abundance of hair. The distinguishing points of the genus,
however, are as follows : — Segments of body unequal, with clubbed
hairs, and sometimes scales ; antennae, filiform, four-jointed, and
longer than the head and thorax ; eyes, eight in number on each
side. The body, too, is more or less spindle-shaped.

Figures 46 and 47 refer to Templetonia nitida. The antennae
are five-jointed, the basal joint being very short, and the ter-
minal one ringed. The skin is of a pinkish brown, and is seen
in many places between the delicate pearly scales as streaks and
spots. The eyes are red, and the general form akin to that of
Degeeria, I cannot say how many eyes this species possesses,
owing to the extreme difficulty in counting them. In cultivated
grounds a spadeful of earth will often disturb numbers, which
run away, glistening like minute specks of snow. They often
occur in damp cellars.

Figure 50 is the scale of a species of Macrotoma — probably
Macrotoma jji'umbea. The distinctive characteristics of Macrotoma
are : — abdominal segments unequal, with simple hairs and scales ;
antennae very long, four-jointed, the two terminal joints being
ringed ; and the eyes are seven on each side.

This genus is remarkable for its activity. At Theale, my
friend and I searched some old willows in an osier plantation,
and the rapidity with which the Macrotomse disappeared,
in spite of their large size, just when we thought we had bagged
them, was most provoking. They do not, as a rule, bear cap-
tivity so well as Lepidocyrtus ; but I have one Macrotoma that
has been imprisoned with about forty of this genus for about
three months, and he often rushes about the cell in a frantic
manner, to the great damage of the beauty of his fellow pri-
soners, who seem greatly frightened by his agility, and brush
their scales off in quantities, in their efforts to get out of his
way. I would rather he was out of his cell for this reason, but

8. J. MC'iNTIRE ON PODUR^. 75

to remove him and prevent the escape of the rest at the same
time would be impossible.

Three other genera of the Podm-idas are alluded to in the learned
papers from which I have drawn so much information, viz. :
Orchesella, Podura, and Achorutes.

The antenniB in Orchesella are long and six-jointed, and the eyes
six on each side, arranged in the form of the letter S.

Podura and Achorutes are nearly related. The antennae in both
genera are short and four-jointed, and the eyes eight on each side.
The distinction consists chiefly in the saltatory appendage. In
Achorutes it is extremely short, and in Podura it is of moderate
length. Also, I notice that in Podura the single tenent hair on
each foot, which, I think, Tufifen West was the first to notice and
represent with his inimitable skill in the paper on the Feet of
Insects, in the " Linnean Transactions," and which appears to be
common to Podur^e generally, is absent, though it is very conspicu-
ous in Achorutes. The last excursion party to Hampstead may
remember taking some specimens there on the surface of the pool,
which yielded Conochilus and Volvox so abundantly. These were
Podura Aquatica.

Achorutes frequents old trees, damp walls and cellars, hotbeds
and flowerpots, where decay is proceeding rapidly. A very dark
purple species, often seen in wine cellars, in Achorutes purpurescens .
Another species (^Achorutes armatus), of a grey colour, is said to
be common on stagnant water. It thus appears from my own
observations that scales, perfectly distinct in character, are found
on the genera Degeeria, Templetonia, Macrotoma, and Lepido-
cyrtus ; each of them, when properly displayed, being an object of
great beauty; and that Isotoma, Podura, and Achorutes are with-
out scales — at least, in all cases that have as yet come under my
observation.

As no specimens of Orchesella have presented themselves to my
notice yet, I am doubtful as to this genus.

Mr. Ketteringham brought me a Podura scale last summer,
which differs in shape and size from any I have yet seen : the
form is far more regular, being always ovate, and the markings are
very coarse, but somewhat like those of Templetonia. The insect
was given me at the same time as the slide of the scales, but I was
unable then to identify it ; I, however, strongly suspect it was a
species of Templetonia.

76 9. J. MC'iNTIRE ON PODUR^.

Spirit and water (^ spirit) seems to offer advantages as a
medium for preserving specimens in for identification ; although it
does not add to their beauty, it enables several details to be seen
that otherwise are invisible. Besides, the organ situated in Podurse
behind the third pair, and extending forward between the second
and third pairs of legs, which evidently fulfils the double office of
yielding a lubricating fluid, and of grasping smooth surfaces under
peculiar emergencies when the insect is in danger of falling, I
notice, also, another piece of apparatus about equi-distant from it
and the root of the caudal appendage. Its use seems to be very
obscure, and its structure is not easily made out. Having only
lately observed it, I am unable as yet to say if it is always present,
but it appears to be pretty constant.

As a conclusion to these imperfect notes, it may be well to
remind beginners that the Order Thysanura has two great divi-
sions — Lepismidge and Poduridae ; that the second division, the
Poduridje are again divided into the three families : —

1. SmynthuridcB. — In which the body is more or less globular.

2. Poduridoe. — Having the body, which consists of eight or nine

segments, linear.

3. Liptiridce. — Having no springer, or only a rudimentary one.
Although the second of these families is undoubtedly the most

interesting to microscopists, and especially to the Quekett Club,
since Professor Quekett was, I believe, the first to give a really
beautiful figure of the Podura scale, the study of the whole order
will amply repay the labour, being almost untrodden ground — at
all events in England ; and the difficulty one finds who has not
access to great libraries in obtaining information, is great in the
extreme.

Many members of the Club seem lately to have found great
interest in the subject, and it is to be hoped that our united efforts
may help to make these curious creatures better known.

77

On Utilising OUR Excursions. By K. Braithwaite, M.D.,F.L.S.

(Read May 22nd, 1868.;

About two months ago, Mr. Draper favoured us with some very
pertinent observations on the work to be carried out by the micros-
cope, and it is with the hope of impressing these views on the
members taking part in the excursions that I venture to offer a few
remarks.

On the 4th of this month I had the pleasure of meeting some
thirty gentlemen at Hampstead, all duly provided with the arma-
mentaria required for capturing the inhabitants of the various pools ;
the energy displayed in their application being quickly evident by
an extensive array of bottles crowded with objects of various
kinds — larvaB, crustaceans, rotifers, diatoms, desmids, and conferva.
Now these operations have been in progress for a considerable
period of time, and so far as I can call to mind, we have heard
nothing of their results : hence I conclude that after affording
amusement for a few evenings to the collectors and their friends,
the specimens have been thrown aside and forgotten.

May I suggest, however, that it is not by the cursory examina-
tion of a great accumulation of specimens that useful results are
obtained, but rather by continued investigation of the structure and
transformations of a single species or family, that we unfold its life
history. One establishes facts on a scientific basis, the other leads
to a dilettanti spirit of obsei-vation which can yield no profitable
return.

I would ask, then, every worker to find out his hobby, and take
every opportunity of trotting it out at our monthly meetings, for I
am assured that when he does so it will be not only for the enjoy-
ment of the members at large, but his own edification as well.

Again let me deprecate the notion that it is advisable to run
after varieties, for how many common things yet await elucidation ?
How many members present are acquainted with the larva of the
house fly ? Or, to take those very collecting bottles I spoke of, in
which the larva and pupa of the gnat were so conspicuous, one
breathing by its head, the other by the tail, and both so different
from the perfect insect that I am sure its biography might be made
almost as interesting as that of the kindred Corethra jjlumicornis
has recently been by Professor Rymer Jones.

78 R. BRAITHWAITE ON UTILISING OUR EXCURSIONS.

Might I also venture to point out that there are many fields yet
but partially explored, to which some of our members may profitably
turn attention. The great class insecta yields endless material for
microscoiDic investigation, in the minute parts of their general
anatomy and their organs of manducation, respiration, and repro-
duction. The whole section Acarida is a sealed book to the bulk of
British Natural History students, while the curious group of
Thysanura is only just awaking interest here, for Sir J. Lubbock
states that while 117 species are known on the Continent, scarce
one-third of these are recorded as British. In this department, at
least, I am pleased to find we have an active and intelligent
worker. Many of the small algte, too, yet aAvait investigation, but
above all, faithful delineation, and I trust we shall soon see Mr.
Draper's suggestion acted on — viz., the collection of a series of
drawings.

I regret that I have not time to study more than one department
of Natural History, but having selected my hobby, and that precept
may not lack example, I beg to lay before you the specimens of
mosses collected on the excursions, hoping that they may be deemed
of sufficient interest to find a place in the library of the Club, and
to say that so far as opportunity permits, I hope to continue them
by series from each locality we visit, so that eventually the Bryo-
logical flora of the metropolitan area may be represented by the
individuals themselves.

And what do these specimens rej^resent ? Not simply so much
vegetable tissue, but the actual physical conditions under which
they were produced ; for the experienced observer may decide at
once by the examination of a suite of specimens, the nature of the
soil, the relative humidity of the season or locality, and often the
very altitude at which they were collected. What do these barren
and stunted Hypna and Polytricha indicate but that the conditions
necessary to their perfect development are wanting ?— that the
water and depth of soil they require are at a minimum, and that with
the disappearance of the bog they also will cease to exist. Yet,
that many retain their stations for a long period, may be seen by
these specimens of Hypnum. stramineum, still growing in the locality
recorded by Dillenius 130 years ago. When with these are con-
trasted specimens from other stations not yet visited, the col-
lection will not be found devoid of interest, or at least
it may call to mind many pleasant hours spent in hunting out the

R. BRAITHWAITE ON UTILISING OUU EXCURSIONS. 79

little noticed members of our native flora, when some of us may no
longer be able to continue the pursuit.

As I find species of Hepaticte are frequently confounded with
mosses, I have included them in the collection, and have thought it
might be useful to append to the specimens rough sketches of their
structure on an enlarged scale.

The Hepatica? present two general forms, one frondose, resembling
the irregular thallus of a lichen ; the other foliose or provided with
leaves, and it is the latter which somewhat resemble mosses ; but
the leaves will almost always be found in one place, and arranged
on the stem distichously, or in two rows ; rarely of the symmetric
outline observable in mosses, but often cleft or lacerated at the
apex, or folded with a sacculate appendage at base. Frequently,
also, the stem bears at the back an intermediate series of stipule-
like organs named amphigastria ; the cell texture is more uniform
and less elongated than in mosses. Their fruit differs still more
from that of mosses, and affords characters for three natural
orders —

EicGiACEJE, in which it is a capsule embedded in the frond.

Marchantiace^, having capsules clustered round a stalked
receptacle, and bursting irregularly.

JuNGERMANNiACE^, with a stallted solitary capsule, which bursts
into four valves.

In none of these is there an included spore sac, or columella,
nor any trace of the lid or beautiful peristome seen in mosses,
but in the two latter orders the spores are intermixed with elegant
spiral threads, or elaters, which no doubt facilitate their dis-
persion.

In touching on this topic, it is with the desire of showing that
this Old England is not yet so worked out, but that it may yield
ample store of the new and the beautiful to every earnest inves-
tigator ; and in directing the attention of members to some pages
of the great book ever open before them, let me hope that the
time is not far distant when the Quekett Microscopical Club may
become the head centre of all the field clubs in the kingdom.

80

On Microscopic Crystals formed at High Temperatures.

By T. HooKHAM.
(Bead May 22nd, 1868.;

(The original source of this paper is to be found in an article by-
Mr. Thomas, of Oxford, printed in the " London Microscopical
Journal" for July, 1866, and copied into the last edition of Dr.
Beale's work on the Microscope.)

The following is a theory of " high temperature " crystals.

It is found that hydrous crystals, as prepared for the microscope,
assume various forms according to the temperature at which they
are crystallised. A solution is placed upon a glass slide, and
rapidly evaporated over the flame of a spirit lamp. If this opera-
tion is properly conducted (and this is the first difficulty the ama-
teur will encounter) a transparent film, much like a gum in appear-
ance, is formed upon the glass. This film would appear to consist
of all the constituent atoms of a crystal, with the exception of the
atoms of water, without which, as is well known, the hydrous
crystals cannot be formed. So long as the slide retains its high
temperature the moisture in the atmosphere cannot condense upon
it, and consequently crystallisation cannot take place. But it is
obvious that by varying the temperature of the slide we can so
regulate its relation to the temperature of the atmosphere that we
can supply water to it by condensation in such quantity as we deem
advisable. This, therefore, is the method of treatment. We take
the uncrystallised and (so long as it remains anhydrous) imcrys-
tallisable film, and subject it to a given temperature. If this tem-
perature is sufficiently low it will absorb a certain amount of mois-
ture from the atmosphere, and crystallisation will commence in a
shorter or longer time, according, probably, to the proportion of
water necessary to the formation of the particular crystal. If the
temperature is low, say 60°, what is called a foliated crystal will be
formed upon the slide, and this in a short space of time, perhaps
from five to ten minutes. Having succeeded with this temperature,
we may now try a higher, say 70°. A longer time will be necessary
to crystallisation, and a different form of crystal will be formed.
(Engravings of such crystals, taken from the accurate drawings of
Mr. Thomas, of Oxford, will be found in the " Microscopical
Journal," as above referred to, and in Dr. Beale's last edition.)

HOOKHAM ON MICR08C0PIC CRYSTALS. 81

We may again try higher temperatures, till the limit is reached
beyond which crystallisation cannot take place at all ; and each time
we shall find a variously modified fonn of crystal to have been
produced ; each higher form possessing increasing interest for the
student.

So far we have for the most part followed Mr. Thomas. He
found that about 110° was the greatest temperature at which he
could obtain a crystal, and even then its formation occupied many
hours. This practical difficulty cannot have been other than a
source of disappointment to him, for up to this point some of the
crystals steadily advanced towards a mathematical correctness of
form, and thus gave promises which the highest temperature he
could supply them with did not allow them to fulfil. The crystals
of sulphate of copper in particular exhibited such an advance to-
wards a mathematical form. Even the foliated crystals formed at
60° exhibit to the educated eye a twist in their lines, or a tendency
to the spiral form. At 70° he obtained a circular or " centrical "
crystal flowing out in waves from a fixed centre, and this still more
strongly showed the spiral twist. At higher temperatures the
waves became smaller, and the spiral more decided ; and having
with great difficulty obtained a crystal at 110° he found that the
ultimate tendency was, beyond a doubt, for the spiral to become
mathematically perfect, and the waves to vanish in pure lines.
Such a crystal he has accordingly figured, as he was fully justified
in doing, though he never obtained it absolutely perfect ; and it
may be added, the result has shown the sagacity of his prophecy.

It occurred to the present writer that, after all, temperature was
only a means to an end, namely, the regulation of the supply of
moisture ; and though the most obvious, might possibly not be
found the only means. It appeared likely that in Mr. Thomas'
experiments with higher temperatures, it was not the small degree
of moisture, but the great degree of heat operating directly, which
prevented crystallisation. Since the direct influence of heat on the
formation of crystals is a fact well established, the problem,
therefore, appeared to resolve itself into this ; — how, either to
counteract the influence of the heat, or to gain the same power of
regulating the supply of atoms of water by other and more in-
direct methods, combined with a lower temperature. For a long
time this problem appeared insoluble. Months of experimenting
gave a uniform result of failure in the attempt to improve the

82 HOOKHAM ON MICROSCOPIC CRYSTALS.

metlaod of crystallisation, a method whicli the writer ventures to
believe represents a very important brancli of the study of crystal-
lography — perhaps the most important. The exception, as we all
know, proves the rule— the scientific (not the popular) interpreta-
tion, which is that an examination of an apparently exceptional
phenomenon points to the general law for the whole class. Here
we force matter to crystalHse under exceptional and artificial condi-
tions. The resulting forms assumed, however, are not irregular,
but most regular. Surely they should have exceptional signifi-
cance ; rightly interpreted, they must point to a true theory of
crystallisation.

At last a successful experiment indicated the right method. This
good fortune happened to the writer at Mentone, in the south of
France, at a time when the hygrometer indicated extraordinary
dryness even in that dry atmosphere : and it is not at all impossible
that his success was in the first place owing to this circumstance.
Feeling now, no doubt that he was on the right track, he first applied
his new method to the crystal which Mr. Thomas had invested with
an especial interest. In an experiment with sulphate of copper, a
crystal was obtained at so low a temperature as 80° in which the
spiral was mathematically perfect, and the lines not merely pure
lines, but so finely ruled as to give to the naked eye the most
briUiant effects of the interference of light the writer ever remem-
bered to have seen, by whatever means produced. In some cases
he has measured 6000 lines to the inch : and' they often extend over
an area of l^in. by fin. So that when held about half way
between the eye and a candle about 5ft. distance in an otherwise
dark room, the effects of interference are almost dazzling ; while
the lines themselves are so perfectly regular that it has occurred to
him that in its larger sweeps, where the lines becomes nearly
straight, or at least the curve is inappreciable, this crystal might
even be used as a micrometer.

The spirals, as Mr. Thomas observed, have sometimes a right,
sometimes a left-handed twist. The result of this is often some-
what unfortunate, for, as a rule, both twists occur in the same
spiral. Radii proceed from the centre, marking the divisions
between the two sets of curved lines, and thus cutting up the spiral
into sections. There are almost always, however, on some parts of
the crystal sweeps of lines sufficiently unbroken to give the spiral
form in a very marked manner. Perfect spirals cannot at present

HOOKHAM ON MICROSCOPIC CRYSTALS. 83

be produced in quantities ; tliey occur only on a percentage of
slides. But the writer does not despair of eventually discovering
the law of their formation, since in some series of experiments they
occur much more frequently than in others. In the meantime, he
begs to present specimens of them to the Quekett Club for inspection,
if it will honour him by their acceptance.

It only remains to add that by singular good fortune the process
adopted in the first place for the purposes above spoken of, also
serves another scarcely less important, and most efficiently. It not
only in all cases greatly facilitates the production of the " anhydrous
film," but it makes it possible in many cases where before it was
impossible. Thus an unlimited field is open in which to apj^ly this
method of crystallisation. The writer has already done this to
some extent Avith the most promising results. He is in treaty with
a scientific chemist to supply him with some of the hydrous crystals
recently discovered, and if the results answer his expectations he
will from time to time offer to the general and scientific public such
microscopic crystals as may seem in any especial manner to merit
their attention.

The President spoke of the subject as being one of great interest, as leading
towards the discovery of the ultimate forms of crystals.

Mr. Hislop said that he was not aware that the subject was to be brought
before the club that evening till the commencement of the meeting, but he had
himself brought a number of slides to shew some remarkable forms which ho
had obtained in the course of his experiments. He had for some time been
working upon crystallisation under various conditions, and had found that the
form of crystallisation was varied, not only by the temperature but by the rate of
cooling, or heating the slide. In preparing the slides, he used a mounting plate
of considerable thickness — a piece of half-inch boiler plate, heated by a gas or
spirit lamp flame applied to one end. Measuring the temperature was attended
with practical difficulties, as it could only be attained approximately, the tem-
perature of the film not being exactly that of the glass slide, the supporting
plate, or the air around. As an instance, he mentioned that merely placing a
cover over the slide while the crystallisation was going on, materially altered the
aggregate form of the crystals . If the salts or other substances in solution,
could be reduced to a viscid condition by a high temperature, and the slide
then dipped in some hydro-carbon — such as pure spirits of turpentine — the
crystals would be found more perfect in outline and details, and the effects pro-
duced when examined by polarised light were among the most gorgeous that
could possibly be conceived. He was still engaged on the subject, which was a
very wide one, and hoped to be able to present the result of his experiments to
the club. His own present conviction was, that we know very little about the
laws of crystallisation, and certainly not enough to warrant us in hasty generali-
sations relating to crystallography.

84

QUEKETT MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.

MARCH 27th, 1868.
Dr. Tilbury Fox, Vice-President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The Honorary Secretary announced the following donations to the Club : — '

" Keport of the Bank of England Library;" "Proceedings of the Bristol
Natural History Society," from the Society ; " Science Gossip," from the Pub-
lisher; " The Naturalist's Circular," from the Editor; "Land and Water,"
from the Editor ; " Catalogue of Works on the Microscope," from Mr. Roper ;
twelve slides from Dr. Dempsey ; fifty slides, mostly of seeds, from Mr. M. C.
Cooke; five slides of Hippuric Acid from Mr. T. C.White; twenty -four slides
from Mr. M'Intire; and eight slides from Mr. Golding.

Mr. Hislop drew the attention of members to the slides presented by Dr.
Dempsey, comprising a number of tongues of Molluscs, mounted, both opaque
and transparent, and accompanied by the shells of the Molluscs to which they
belonged. There were also some slides of selected Diatoms and selected Poly-
cystins, and the first of a series of Test Diatoms which Dr. Dempsey intended to
present to the Club .

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — Messrs. W. M.
Holmes, Henry Withall, John Burrows, WiUiam Snellgrove, W. P. Bodkin,
John Eigden Mummery, F.L.S., P.R.M.S., J. Howard Mummery, T. W. Burr,
P.R.A.S., P.E.M.S., John Reynolds, John Garnham, F.R.M.S., John Rogerson,
P.R.M.S., and Charles Baker, F.R.M.S.

The meeting was then made special, pursuant to notice, in order to consider
a resolution for admitting ladies to the Club. The resolution, having been put
from the chair, was negatived.

Fifteen gentlemen proposed at the last meeting were then balloted for, and
duly elected.

Mr. Curties then read a paper on " Some rare and undescribed species of
Infusoria," by Mr. Tatem.*

Mr. R. T. Lewis read a short paper on ' ' The application of Berlin black to
Microscopical Purposes."

Mr. S. J. M'Intire read a paper on " Some cheap aids to Microscopical
study."

The thanks of the members were accorded to Messrs. Tatem, Curties, Lewis,
and M'Intire.

The usual conversazione terminated the proceedings.

* Since published in " Science Gossip."

85

APKIL 24th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., F.L.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the previous meeting having been read and approved, the
Secretary announced the following donations ; —

" Land and Water," from the Editor ; " Science Gossip," and " The Popular
Science Keview," from the publisher ; " Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History
Society," from the Society; "The Naturalists' Circular," from the Editor ;
" The Collecting Book for Naturalists," from Mr. Hardwicke ; two diagrams of
Mermis Nigrescens, and a slide of fragments of a meteoric stone, from Mr. R.
T. Lewis ; twelve slides (anonymous) ; thirteen slides of Marine Algse, and one
of Navicularhomboides, from Mr. H. Ambrose Smith ; and four slides, from Mr,
Gelding.

Mr. M. C. Cooke, the secretary for foreign correspondence, announced that he
had forwarded forty-two copies of the circular of the Club to the President of
the Portland (U.S.) Natural History Society, and that the committee of that
society had undertaken to distribute them to Natural History societies in
America, with a notice that " The Portland Natural History Society is in corres-
pondence with the Quekett Microscopical Club, of London," and offering assis-
tance to any one desirous of corresponding with the Club. Mr. Cooke also pre-
sented to the library, on the part of the president of the Portland Society, the
first number of " The Molluscs of Maine, and their Palates," with the announce-
ment that the work might be obtained by members for their own libraries in
exchange for slides, the number to be agreed upon according to value. Some •
particulars were also given by Mr. Cooke of the Montreal Microscopical Club,
which had expressed a wish to enter into correspondence with the Quekett
Club.

The following gentlemen were proposed as members of the Club : — Dr. John
P. ScatlifiF, Messrs. John Berney, F.R.M.S., John Rogers, William T. Hill,
John Spencer, G. H. Fryer, F.R.M.S., J. G. Tatem, J. Hopkinson, William
Rawles, Thomas Russell, Captain L. C. Bailey, R.N., F.R.G.S., Messrs. F.C. S.
Roper, F.L.S., F.E.M.S., &c., &c., W. J. Browne, G. A. H. Dean, W. B. Ford,
J. S. PearsaU, B. A. Hevritt, W. G. Cocks, T. C. White, F.R.C.S., F.R.M.S.,
E. G. Wild, J. G. Waller, W. H. Harris, F.C.S., Joseph Holdsworth, James
CoUins, W. G. Dresser, J. J. Hicks, W. M'Vean, J. J. Smith, F.R.M.S.,
T. D. Watson, and John Wigner, B.A,

Twelve gentlemen, proposed at the last meeting, were then duly elected by
ballot.

The President announced that Mr. Marks and Mr. Martinelli had some
special objects for exhibition to members, and that Mr. Reeves had presented
specimens of ^cidium Violse and ^cidium Ranunculae for distribution.

Dr. Braithwaite read a paper "On Utilising our Excursions," illustrated by a
collection of dried specimens and numerous drawings .

The President asked for a special vote of thanks to Dr. Braithwaite, which
was agreed to with enthusiasm.

Mr. S. J. M'Intire read a paper, entitled "Some additional notes on
Podurse," which was illustrated by drawings. The thanks of the members were
voted to Mr. M'Intire for his paper.

A paper by Mr. Slade, " On the Shells of the Crustacea," having been
announced for the next meeting, the proceedings terminated with a con-
versazione.

86

MAY 22nd, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

After the minutes of the preceding meeting had been read and approved, the
Secretary announced the following donations :—" Science Gossip," from the
publisher ; "Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the
Society ; " Land and Water," from the Editor ; " The Naturalists' Circular,"
from the Editor ; an Ancient Microscope (or Engiscope), supposed to be
100 years old, from Mr. Wright; twenty-four Photo-Micrographs, mounted
in a portfolio, from the President; fifty slides, from Mr. Cooke; and
three slides from Mr. Martin.

The President called attention to the photographs of microscopic objects
presented by him, and alluded to the circumstance that drawings very often
represent the interpretation of the artist rather than the object as it is, while a
photograph only shews what actually exists. A vote of thanks was accorded to
the President and the other donors, for their valuable gifts.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — Messrs. J. C.
Barnard, Arthur H. Henry, Jas. Martin, Fred. R. Syms, W. Lindly, jun.,
Alfred Haward, J. W. Walker, Alfred Milledge, H. B. Briggs, Charles Dickens,
James Smith, F.L.S., F.R M.S., Rev. Jas. Fry, M.A., and Lieut. -Colonel
Jeakes.

Thirty gentlemen, proposed at the last meeting, were balloted for, and de-
clared duly elected.

Among the special objects exhibited, the following were announced:^ — "A
diamond-cut on glass, by polarised light, and the Pedicellaria of the Echinus,
by Mr. Martinelli ; Desmids, collected at the last excursion, by Mr. Hain-
worth ; sections of crab-sheUs, by Mr. Slade ; Crystals of Sulphate of
Copper, by Mr. Martin ; Crystals of Sulphate of Copper, shewing spiral
striae, by Mr. Hislop ; and the fructification of Todia Hymenophylloides ,
by Mr. Lewis.

Mr. Martin read a paper " On the Crystallisation of Sulphate of Copper at
different temperatures," by Mr. Hookham. See page 80.

Mr. Slade read a paper " On the Microscopic Structure of the Shells of the
Crustacea," which was illustrated by coloured diagrams.

The thanks of the members were presented to Mr. Slade for his paper.

Dr. Braithwaite presented specimens in continuation of the series of mosses
found in the metropolitan district, and made a few observations on the following
rare species now first recorded there : — Fissidens exiHs, found by Mr.
Reeves, near Keston Common ; Hypnum imponeus, from Oxshot Common,
Esher, (Prof. Lawson), being the second recorded British locality; Buxbaumia
aphylla, also discovered by Prof. Lawson, near Virginia Water, and very rare
in England ; Hypnum illecebrum, found by himself on Barnes Common. He
also exhibited specimens of Wolfiia arhiza, a species of duckweed recently
discovered here, and the smallest of the British flowering plants.

The President announced that the annual excursion and dinner would take
place on June 23rd, at Leatherhead.

Papers by Mr. Archer and Mr. Moore were announced for the next meeting,
and the proceedings terminated.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

(ijiulutt Ipicrascajjital Club,

Ox THE Microscopic Structure of the Shell of Crustacea.

By J. Slade.

(Read May 22nd, 1868.;

The following notes on the Microscopic Structure of tlie Shell of
the Crustacea are partly the result of an examination of a few slides
prepared by myself at different times, and from different species of
the grouj).

It is a subject which seems to me to be but little worked upon
by microscopists in general, and it is mainly the desire to make it
better known, rather than to add anything to that which is already
recorded, and also the greater desire that it may lead to discussion,
which always gives so much life and energy to our meetings, that I
have complied with the request to introduce it to you this evening.
About two months ago I brought the same subject before the mem-
bers of the N. L. N. Club, and several gentlemen now present will,
doubtless, remember it resulted in a warm discussion — the very best
effect which a paper of this kind can produce ; and although con-
flicting theories could not be reconciled, yet I am sure we were all
benefited by the trial of our microscopic and reasoning powers.

The shell of the common crab may be taken as the type of struc-
ture of the shell of all Crustacea, and is much more complex than
the shell of any Echinoderm, Mollusc, Brachiopod, or even than tooth
or bone. It consists of four layers, with tubules like those of den-
tine, traversing them at right angles, or nearly so.

Dr. Carpenter, in the Report of the British Association for 1848,
noticed this tubulated structure, and since then it has been described

H

88 J. SLADE ON THE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE

by Quekett, in liis Histology, by Huxley, in the Cyclo. Anat.
and Physiology, and by Professor Williamson, in the " Transactions
of the Royal Microscopical Society."

The four layers of which the shell is composed are well seen in a
section of a piece of the carapace, taken at right angles to the surface.
It is then found that the external and internal layers are entirely struc-
tureless — the external probably forming a mere protective covering
to the middle layers, — the internal, probably, in the course of growth
becomes converted into the adjoining layer. These layers are mem-
branous and structureless, and do not contain calcareous matter.
The inner layers are known as the areolar layer and the corium.
The areolar layer is the uppermost of the two, and lies immediately
beneath the external layer. It is termed cellular by Dr. Carpenter,
but Huxley and Williamson have shown that it is not cellular ;
but upon its surface, immediately in contact with the external
layer, it is seen to be areolated. The vertical section shows it to be
composed of thin laminte. Beneath this areolar layer lies the
calcified corium, — this is also composed of fine laminae. These
laminre, at first, lie flat and horizontal with the inner layer, but
gradually, at numerous points, they rise, and at last become so much
inflected that they ascend like flat-topped cylindrical pillars, pene-
trating the areolar layer, and reaching the external pellicle, and
there form the white spots seen on the surface of the crab's shell.
The tubules composing the tubulated structure traverse the areolated
layer and corium at right angles to the laminse, of which they are
composed ; and where these are inflected the tubules bend to suit
the altered condition of things. The tubules of the areolated layer
can be seen easily, and are large compared with those of the corium,
which are very fine, crowded and confused, and not easily traced in
balsam mounted specimens.

Flat sections of the shell, those made parallel to the surface,
present very different appearances according to the position at
which they are taken.

In a section of the claw it is seen that the corium does not rise
in cylindrical pillars, and the tubules are more distinctly seen and
more closely resemble dentine.

The structure of the shell of the crab is that which is always
found in all the most highly organised forms of the Decapodous
Crustacea. And in the group Brachyura all the layers previously
described are present, and the variations consist in the different

OF THE SHELL OF CRUSTACEA. 89

degrees of development and position of tlie laminae and tubules. In
the group Anomura, or soft-tailed crabs, and of which the soldier
and hermit crabs are members, the difference of structure is not
very great, and this agrees well with the known difficulty that is
often found in separating some of the members of the two
groups.

In the group Macroura, represented by the lobster, shrimp, cray-
fish, &c., the difference is considerable, although not so great as
one would conclude from a more casual inspection. The calcareous
matter in the corium of the lobster is very dense and opaque,
rendering it difficult to make a good transparent section, whilst in
the common shrimp a section of the shell at right angles to the
surface shows the four layers present, but in a very attenuated form,
and the calcareous matter locally diffused.

The most remarkable feature in the integument of the shrimp
consists of numerous discs, the result of a secondary calcification,
which becomes incorporated with the pre-existing tubulated calcific
deposit. The brovra carapace of Argulus foliaceus, mounted in
dilute glycerine, shows well the hexagonal divisions of the areolar
layer.

In examining a portion of a cast shell of Liinulus, a junior speci-
mien, I foimd very little calcareous matter. Throughout the pre-
paration were to be seen a number of centres which, under the
polariscope, showed the black cross, beautifully defined, and closely
resembhng those centres shown in an elytron of a coleopterous
insect.

At the close of the paper,

Mr. Martinelli called attention to the fact that the cuticular
layer becomes separated if the shell be treated with dilute hydro-
chloric acid.

Mr. Breese stated that he had utterly failed to make out the
tubes in sections prepared in the usual way. In pieces chipped
across the shell at right angles to their directions he had, however,
detected them with the one-eighth objective. He believed that the
grinding process filled up the tubes, and thus rendered them in-
visible. He had tried hydro-chloric acid, but had failed to separate
the layers so as to render the tubes visible.

H 2

90

On the Application of Berlin Black to Microscopic
Purposes. By R. T. Lewis.

(Read March 27th, 1868.;

In using Brunswick black for object mounting, I haye frequently
found cause of complaint against it, on account of its want of
opaqueness, its highly reflective surface, the stickiness which
sometimes remains for days after it has been applied, and the
difficulty of making a thin coating of gum spread evenly upon its
surface. I therefore thought it desirable to find, if possible, some
substitute which, whilst possessing all its good qualities, should not
possess any of its bad ones ; and it occurred to me that Berlin
black might meet the requirements of the case. I, therefore, made
trial of it, and have found it so well to answer the purpose in every
respect, that I have no hesitation in strongly recommending its use
to others. When apjDlied to glass, or any other non-absorbent
substance, it dries perfectly in the course of a few minutes, with a
beautifully smooth, dull surface, upon which thin gum water will
spread as easily as upon paper, whilst for all practical purposes, it
may be said to be opaque, which properties render it exceedingly
useful for spotting the interior of cells in which it is intended to
mount objects dry for lieberkuhn illumination. When used for
finishing off slides, its blackness is obviously a great improvement
upon the treacle-brown of the Brunswick, and if the comparative
deadness of its untouched surface should be objected to, a slight
amount of rubbing with a soft piece of cloth or silk will produce a
polish upon it equal to that of black marble (and it is for this
latter quality it is so highly prized by metal workers, who use the
Brunswick black for common purposes alone). It is also a very
excellent stain for wood, and, as such, is frequently employed in the
transmutation of beech into ebony. As regards supply, although
it may possibly be new to microscopy, it is an article in every-day
use ; but as there are several kinds in the market, it may be as
well to state that what is known in the trade as Iles's Berlin Black
is greatly to be preferred to any other. This is retailed, in green
labelled stone-ware bottles, at Is. and Is. 6d., the smaller size con-
taining about one quarter of a pint.

91

On Tobacco. By J. A. Archer.

(Read June 26th, 1868.;

(Abstract.)

After enumerating the different qualities of leaf tobacco, chiefly,
it would seem, arising from the climate and. soil of the place of
growth, the paper proceeded to describe the method of culture,
resembling, in many respects, the procedure followed in raising
vegetables in our own market gardens. The chief enemy of the
growing plant seems to be what is called the " horn worm." This
is the larva of one of the Sphingidee, or hawk moths, described as
the Sphinx Carolina, an insect of four inches and a half expanse of
wing. These caterpillars are said to cause great damage to the
crop.

"When the crop is cut, the leaves and stems are partially dried,
then allowed to ferment in heaps, and subsecpiently cured, or more
completely dried. The tobacco is then packed under pressure,
and conveyed to the various markets.

Tobacco contains the peculiar element, nicotianin, which gives
the peculiar odour, and nicotine, an alkaloid, combined with gum,
tannin, gallic acid, resin, and other vegetable products. The
burnt ash gives potash, soda, lime, magnesia, chloride of sodium
and potassium, phosphate and sulphate of lime and silica.

A transverse section of the midrib, or any of the veins in
the leaf, exhibits, under the microscope, the appearance of
a horseshoe, surrounded on all sides by cellular tissue {Fig. 1,
Plate 5). The horseshoe is made up of the cut extremities of the
spiral or pitted tissue, which gives strength to the stalk. On the
outer surface are numerous hairs, of peculiar form — one of the
principal indications with the excise for detecting the admixture of
other leaves by the manufacturers. These hairs vary in size, are
tubular, and composed of several cells joined together (generally
from four to six), the terminal one, in most instances, having a
gland attached, consisting of one or more small cells, filled with
dark granular matter, and the basal cell is mostly much longer than
the other. Sometimes a few hairs may be found with an obtuse
rounded extremity, without the gland. Occasionally there are a

92 J. A. ARCHER ON TOBACCO.

few club-shaped hairs, the extremities of which are divided so as
to form a mimber of small cells containing within their cavities a
dark brown colouring matter. These short hairs are found on all
parts of the leaf, but are more numerous on the midrib and veins,
but are not very abundant. {Fig. la, pi. 5.)

The author of the paper directed attention, in passing, to the
subject of vegetable hairs generally, with the especial object of
ascertaining their particular use in the economy of the plant, the
existing theories concerning which appear to be very vague.

The cellular tissues of tobacco may be said to consist of three
kinds : —

First. Cells of an hexagonal or octagonal form, found in the
transverse section of the midrib.

Second. Elongated hollow cells, joined together, found in the
epidermis of the under surface of the midrib.

Third. Cells, with waved borders, found on the upper and
under surface of the lamina of the leaf.

Tobacco contains no raphides, but in the green state a minute
quantity of starch is found, the granules of which are very small,
and are found near the midrib. In form, these granules are round
and irregularly oval, in some instances present a flattened surface,
and occasionally they present a very minute hilum in a central
position.

In consequence of the high duty on tobacco, a considerable temp-
tation is offered to adulterate the staple, both in its raw and
manufactured state. To prevent the practice, a penalty of
£200 may be enforced for the introduction of anything but water.
The principal adulterants are mechanical, and may be readily
detected by the use of the microscope. Among the substances
used are the leaves of rhubarb, dock, burdock, coltsfoot, foxglove,
thorn apple, cabbage, lettuce, and chicory. Also, sugar, treacle,
molasses, liquorice, gum dextrine, Irish moss, common salt, copperas,
and flour. In snuff have been found ground dye woods, such as
fustic, logwood, Brazil wood, and sumach ; peat moss, ground
pine, beech, and birch ; the starches or flour of maize, orris root,
wheat, oats, potatoes, &c. ; chalk, oxide of iron, yellow ochre, and
probably many others.

The following are a few instances : —

1. Rhubarb. — This is distinguished from tobacco by the bundles
of woody fibres being scattered irregularly, instead of being

J. A. ARCHER ON TOBACCO. 93

gathered in a horseshoe shape in the centre of the veins The
hairs, also, are short, one-celled, and finely striated, the striation
resembling dots. {Fig. 2, pi. 5.) Rhubarb contains a large quantity
of raphides, tobacco containing none.

Rhubarb leaves have always been a favourite adulterant ; they
readily take up tobacco liquor, and, when so prepared, have to
the naked eye a striking resemblance to tobacco. Less than one
per cent., however, is easily detected by the microscope, owing to the
abundance of raphides, and the peculiar kind of hair.

2. Dock. — In dock the bundles of woody fibre are found very simi-
lar to those in rhubarb, but more regular. The hairs are one-celled and
coarsely striated ; they are also frequently narrower at the base
than at the top. {Fig. 3, pi. 5.) Dock contains raphides, like rhubarb,
and is readily distinguished from tobacco. Several striking differ-
ences may be observed between dock and rhubarb, such as the
regular shape of the transverse section of rhubarb and the irregular
shape of dock ; the prominences on the dock (in which the cellular
tissue is extremely fine), which prominences are absent in rhubarb ;
the form, size, and striation of the hairs ; the presence of hairs on
all parts of the rhubarb leaf and the absence of them on all parts
of dock leaf, except midrib and veins .

3. Thorn Apple. — The vascular tissue in this plant is arranged
in horseshoe form, not unlike tobacco. The hairs, however, differ
entirely from tobacco, being of two kinds, sessile and jointed (or
glandular and lymphatic). The glandular hairs are very short,
consisting of a single cell terminating in a bulb, the bulb resem-
bling that on tobacco hairs ; the lymphatic hairs are composed of
from two to five joints, terminating in an obtuse point, each joint
having the appearance of being dotted over. {Fig. i, pi. 5.) Thorn
apple belongs to the same natural order as tobacco. It contains no
raphides.

4. Burdock. — The vascular tissue is arranged in the form of oval
bundles. This plant is also distinguished by the form of its hairs,
being composed of a large number of short cells, joined end to end
in the form of a chain, terminating in a long filament. It is this
kind of hair which gives the burdock leaf its soft, downy appearance.
{Fig. b, pi. 5.) .

5. Coltsfoot. — In a transverse section of coltsfoot the vascular
bundles are similar in shape to those in burdock, but the number
of them is generally limited to three. The hairs are very similar
to those of burdock, but shorter in the joints, {Fig. 6, pi. 5.)

94 J. A, ARCHER ON TOBACCO.

6. Chicory. — In a' transverse section of chicory, tlie vascular
tissue is arranged in the form of oval bundles. The hairs are
long and of a complicated structure, each joint being made up
of small cells, the last joint generally terminating in a bulb. {Fig.
'7,pL 5.)

7. Cabbage. — This is distinguished from tobacco by its vascular
tissue being in the form of wedged -shaped bundles.

8. Potatoe. — The horseshoe here is very like that in tobacco, but
smaller ; but the hairs, which have from two to seven joints, are
all pointed.

9. Henbane. — This is more like tobacco in microscopical struc-
ture than any other leaf at present known. Its horseshoe is
small, but resembles that in a small tobacco leaf; its hairs are
jointed, the first joint being similar to the first joint in tobacco,
and the hairs frequently terminate with a bulb. A little expe-
rience, however, renders it easy of detection : — thus the hairs ap-
pear very transparent and very weak, each hair being folded on
itself ; so that it is difficult to see from top to bottom the whole of
one side of the hair. Again, the bulb on the end is devoid of granu-
lar matter. Lastly, another kind of hair is frequently met with —
namely, a jointed hair, with a long filament or whip. This of
itself is sufficient to distinguish it from tobacco.

10. Foxglove. — The character of the hairs is shewn in Jig. 8 ;
they are easily distinguishable from the hairs on the tobacco plant.
Foxglove is but rarely used as an adulterant.

Thorn apple, potatoe, aiid henbane belong to the natural
order Solanaceee, to which tobacco also belongs, and they
present the closest approach in appearance to that plant. It will
be seen, however, that distinguishing features exist which can easily
be detected by the aid of the microscope, and not only the kind
but the proportion of adulteration exactly determined.

Most of the other adulterations previously mentioned are detected
by chemical means.

95

President's Address, delivered at the Annual Meeting,
July 24th, 1868. By E. Durham.

Gentlemen, —

My year of office as your President has now come to an
end.

It is true, you have done me the honour to elect me your Presi-
dent for the ensuing year. It is also true, that I fully appreciate
the high compliment you have been so good as to pay me, and that
I hope to have the pleasure of again taking this chair at your next
meeting. None the less, this evening I retire from office : and so,
in accordance with a custom I would gladly abolish, but which I
am bound to adopt, I rise to offer you a few remarks.

I freely confess I feel considerable difficulty in entering upon the
task before me. By my position I am shut out from all other than
general topics ; and the remarks I address to you must be more or
less general in character. But general remarks upon general
topics do not often possess any particular interest. It is some-
times as hard to listen to such remarks patiently, as it is always
hard to utter them pleasantly. I trust, however, to your kind con-
sideration and indidgence.

In my present difficulty as to the subject matter of my address,
precedent affords me but little aid.

The substance of Presidential addresses to Scientific Societies, so
far as I know, may, as a rule, be arranged under three heads :
first, we have obituary notices of members deceased during the
past year ; next, allusions to new instruments, or other aids to re-
search ; and lastly, an epitome of recent and important advances in
the particular branch of science especially cultivated.

Now, fortunately or imfortunately, as the case may be, it happens
that there is little for me to say on the present occasion that can
fairly be discussed under any one of these heads of discourse.

In the first place, it is true that during the past year two or three
members have been lost to us by death. We regret most sincerely
our loss. "We sympathise with those — relatives and friends —
who have been bereaved, and who still mournfully feel their greater
loss. We trust our expressions of sympathy will be accepted.

96 THE president's address.

But the late members of oui- club to whom I refer, however dear to
their several families, however highly honoured and esteemed in
their respective social circles, do not appear to have contributed in
any notable degree to the advancement of microscopical know-
ledge. There is, therefore, nothing for me, in my present capacity,
to record respecting them.

Next, with regard to improvements made during the past year in
our instruments — the microscope itself, and the various appliances
and contrivances useful in microscopical research.

I do not know that anything has been done to which I am espe-
cially bound to direct your attention.

Many ingenious devices have been from time to time conceived,
and many clever little dodges (if you will allow the expression) have
been made known, by means of which time and labour may be
saved, or increased facilities for observation afforded. The publi-
cation of such devices and " dodges " — trifling as they may seem to
some — is, I think, highly commendable, and very much to be en-
couraged. Cleverness in little things often constitutes the great
difference between the successful and the unsuccessful microscopist.
A hint from the clever contriver, or a glimpse of his contrivance,
sometimes proves of the greatest value to the industrious and
honest, but hitherto unsuccessful worker. Many unpretending little
instruments and methods of the kind I am alluding to, have been
brought before the members of our club. It is to be hoped that
many more will follow. Our meetings afford peculiarly good op-
portunities to those who have anything of the kind to shew or to
suggest, — tempting opportunities, indeed, to all who can be tempted
by the prospect of unostentatiously, but certainly, rendering their
own experiences useful to others of kindred tastes and pursuits.

Beyond the minor aids which I have thus mentioned collectively,
little or nothing worthy of note has been recently brought out.

We have among us many able and eminent makers, who cer-
tainly surpass all foreign competitors in the excellence of their
workmanship, if not in the lowness of their prices. Probably they
could tell us, if they would, of the successes they have severally
achieved in disposing of very many microscopes during the past
twelve months. Such successes on their parts, may fairly be con-
sidered matter for congratulation on ours. The sale of an increas-
ing number of good instruments affords unimpeachable evidence of
a growing interest in the use of the microscope ; and the distribu-

THE president's ADDRESS. 97

tion of sucli instraments througli town and country implies a wider
and more general spread of opportunities and facilities for micros-
copical research.

But no great improvement has been effected of late in the micros-
cope itself; and no addition of striking importance has been made
to our accessory apparatus. This can be no matter for surprise —
hardly perhaps for regret. The ingenuity and skill of the makers,
aided by the suggestions and directions of practical microscopists,
have "developed" the microscope to its present state of high excel-
lence with an almost marvellous degree of rapidity. We can well
afford to await with patience the still higher excellence "which
sooner or later w^ill certainly be attained. Multiplication of speci-
mens, rather than elevation of tyj^e, has of late been the order of
the day among the microscopes.

In the introduction to the first edition of his well known treatise
on the microscope, Dr. Carpenter says — " The statements of
theorists as to what may be accomplished, are so nearly equalled
by what has been effected, that little room for improvement can be
considered to remain, imless an entirely new theory shall be devised,
which shall create a new set of possibilities." But since this pas-
sage was written many important advances have been made.
Wenham's Binocular has been invented and come into general use.
We have been furnished with object glasses of far higher power,
with better definition and greater facility of working than would then
have been deemed possible. Objectives on the immersion system
have been successfully made and advantageously used. The Spec-
troscope has been applied to the microscope. Such and such like
improvements have been effected within the last few years. We
cannot be too cordial in our acknowledgments of what has been
done. But still we may look with hope and confidence for some-
thing more. Granting that the stage of theoretic perfection has
been reached, there is yet ample scope for practical advancement in
various directions. At any rate, it seems so to me. Permit me to
indicate one or two directions in which I venture to think some-
thing may be done, and to state my reasons for hoping that ere
long something ivill be done.

It appears to me that the Stereoscopic Binocular Arrangement is
not even yet so fully appreciated as it ought to be. Some of its
advantages are sufficiently estimated, but others, and those perhaps
the greatest, are almost ignored.

98 THK president's address.

Every microscopist whose eyes are equal, recognises at once and
without difficulty the stereoscopic projection and apparent solid-
arity, and the infinitely greater beauty and perfection of form
which certain objects consequently present when viewed through
the "Wenham Binocular. Every one, also, who tries the experi-
ment readily becomes conscious of the fact that it is much more com-
fortable, — much less tiring to the eyes and brain, — to watch an ob-
ject for any length of time under the binocular than under the mon-
ocular microscope. The pleasure derived from increased perfection
of view, and the comfort arising from less urgent sense of fatigue,
are immediate advantages readily appreciated. The ulterior and,
as I think, greater advantage of the binocular, depends upon the
comparative safety with which it may be used. Frequent and,
from time to time, continuous use of the monocular microscope is
much more liable to result in permanent damage to the eyesight
than a corresponding use of the binocular. That it must be so is
obvious. Every one accustomed to the use of both eyes, who by
accident is for a time dependent upon one eye, or any one who, for
the sake of experiment, may choose to make himself thus dependent,
speedily finds out that one eye serves him less than half as Avell as
two, and much sooner becomes tired. In order that they may be
maintained in well-nourished, healthy condition, the eyes, like all
other organs of the body, must be used and exercised. Now exer-
cise and use may be continued with advantage and safety up to a
certain point. Beyond such point, which may be called the fatigue
point, exercise tends to exhaustion ; use becomes abuse ; and more
or less lasting damage is liable to result. Experience teaches us
that the fatigue point is reached much sooner when we use
the eyes singly, or either eye by itself, than when we use both to-
gether. But this is not all. We can see very well with one eye ;
we can see best, however, not simply when we use both eyes, but
when both eyes act precisely in unison. To preserve perfect
vision, therefore, the integrity of each eye must be maintained ;
and more than this, the natural sympathy and consentaneity of
action of the two must be kept up. Now, when we look at an
object under the monocular microscope the eye which we use is sub-
jected to very different conditions to the other. The eye which we
use " accommodates" and "adjusts" itself to the requirements of its
present purpose. The other eye at fii-st sympathises to a certain
extent ; but its external circumstances are altogether different ;

THE president's ADDRESS. 99

and just in proportion as it sympathises in accommodation and ad-
justment with its fellow, is it out of accord with its own proper
condition. This is true, whether it be closed, as is sometimes the
case, or open and gazing at vacuity. By and bye the unused eye
ceases to a certain extent to sympathise with its fellow. Still later,
the fault which has thus arisen incidentally may become habitual.
In this manner the constant use of the monocular micros-
cope may tend to break the consentaneity of action of the two
eyes, and so lead to impairment of perfect vision. It is clear that
such a result arising from such cause may be in great part, if not
yrholly, obviated by using both eyes at the same time under the
same conditions. We do this when we look through a rightly ad-
justed binocular microscope. It is not, then, so much for the sake
of the greater beauty of the view, as for the sake of saving the
eyes that I urge so strongly the use of the binocular in every
case in which the power it bears is high enough for the observa-
tion to be made.

It seems to me that since the invention, and I may almost say
the perfection of the achromatic objective, no service has been
rendered to microscopists at all equal in value to the introduction
by Mr. "Wenham of his stereoscopic binocular arrangement. Those
eminent men who first made for us the achromatic objectives have
enabled us to see what otherwise might still have been beyond our
ken; and Mr. Wenham has done much to save our eyes. The
one great drawback to Mr. Wenham's arrangement is, as you all
know, that it cannot be used with the higher powers : and yet it
is with such that we want the binocular most, for they are most
trying to the eyes.

I should do wrong if I omitted to allude to the binocular
arrangement for high powers invented by Messrs. Powell and Lea-
land: all honour to them for what they have done. Most of us
have seen various objects shewn by these gentlemen under their
arrangement ; and all who have seen such objects must have been
struck by the admirable manner in which they were displayed. But
the arrangement of Messrs. Powell and Lealand has a defect,
which, from what I have said, you will readily understand seems to
me more important than it may seem to some — perhaps more im-
portant than it really is. The defect to which I allude is this :
there is a very great difference in the amount of light transmitted
to the eyes — one receives much more than the other. Further, I

100 THE president's ADDRESS.

am not aware that this arrangement has yet been made universally

applicable.

What we want is some binocular arrangement suitable for high
and low powers indifferently, and so arranged that the two tubes of
the microscope are equally inclined. In using the present arrange-
ment, the axis of vision of the right eye is directed straight for-
ward, and the axis of the left eye is of necessity inclined abnor-
mally inwards. The natural convergence of the axes of vision is
thus disturbed, and the left eye is for the time made to squint in-
wards to a greater or less degree. This is clearly objectionable, on
more grounds than one.

So, then, it seems to me that the fuller development of the Stereo-
scopic Binocular is one of the great advances in connection with the
microscope that we have strong reason to hope may ere long be
accomplished.

Another desideratum is some better means than we at pre-
sent possess of increasing our magnifying power without dimin-
ishing our field of view.

Mr. Boss's admirable new four-inch objective and other similar
glasses, which work well with the deeper eyepieces, may perhaps
be regarded as more or less successful attempts in this direction.
But every microscopist knows the discomfort associated with the
use of the deeper eyepieces as at present constructed. May we
not legitimately hope that some improved arrangement may here-
after be devised.

Thus, gentlemen, not being able to announce to you any strik-
ing improvement recently effected in our instruments, I have ven-
tured, with all deference, to point out one or two directions out of
many in which there is yet ample scope for advance.

Thirdly. With regard to the progress of Microscopical Science
during the past twelvemonths.

So far as I have been able to learn, no great discovery has been
made ; no new method of research, of distinguished merit, has been
devised ; no fresh field of wide, general interest has been opened
up. But discoveries, such as are sometimes said to mark epochs,
are not made every day nor every year. Nor, indeed, does it
always happen that such discoveries are of the greatest real value ;
although seemingly they may be, for a time, the brightest. We
have ample evidence that, during the past year, a large amount of
good honest work has been done. It is true the general tendency of

THE president's ADDRESS. 101

such work lias been to confirm or controvert observations and state-
ments already published rather than to bring forward anything new,
or establish absolutely, any important result. Those who regularly
read the current microscopical literature, will readily allow that
this is true. The joui'nals teem with notices and records of work
carried on in almost every department of Microscopical Science. It
would, obviously, be impossible for me on the present occasion, to
epitomise fairly all that has been published, even in one depart-
ment, much less in all. And it would seem invidious to single out
for special praise or criticism, any individual contributions. Many
have appeared that are of great value ; but I do not know that any
can indisputably claim preeminence. I may be permitted, how-
ever, to allude to two or three subjects which have of late engaged
the attention of many able microscopists, and which seem to me
not only to deserve, but to demand, and that without delay, still
further investigation

First and foremost there is the minute anatomy of the nervous
system, especially as regards the so-called terminations of the
nerve fibres in muscle, and in the several organs of sensation. The
results of Dr. Beale's well-known investigations have been dis-
puted by many who have adopted different methods of research.
To some, perhaps, it may still seem an open question whether or
not Dr. Beale's statements will, in the main, be proved worthy of
general acceptance. It would be out of place to enter upon the
discussion now But I cannot allow this opportunity to pass with-
out expressing my own admiration for the exquisite beauty of Dr.
Beale's preparations, and my high appreciation of the ability and
untiring industry with which he has worked out and supported his
conclusions.

Again : Hallier and others have been of late, and are still,
engaged in the study of certain minute living organisms, which
appear to be the concomitants, if not the causes, of the various so-
called septic diseases, such as cholera, fever, pyaemia, &c. In the
results of such investigations, we all of us have something more
than microscopic interest.

Another field for investigation which, to me, appears likely to be
of great importance in its general bearing, has been recently
reopened by Cohnheim, and urged upon the attention of micros-
copists in this country by Dr. Charlton Bastian. I refer "to the
relations between the blood corpuscles and the walls of the vessels,

102 THE president's ADDRESS. '

and the passage, under certain circumstances, of the corpuscles
throua^li the unrent walls. The results of Cohnheim's observations
and his theoretical conclusions, if established, might tend mate-
rially to modify our ideas as to the nature, if not as to the treat-
ment, of certain of the phenomena of various ailments to which all
of us are more or less liable. It is curious to note that similar
observations to those of Cohnheim were made many years ago by
Dr. A. Waller and Dr. Williams. But, as in other instances,
reimpoi'tation from Germany has secured for these observations
more attention than they received as native productions.

You will object, I fear, that all these subjects are more imme-
diately interesting to myself than they can be to most of you. I
forbear, therefore, to go on with my list.

I may, however, allude to a subject in quite another department,
which is open to the study of all, and which sooner or later will,
I think, assume a greater importance in its general bearings than
is, perhaps, at the present time supposed. I refer to the influence
which varying physical conditions exert upon not-living matter in
its transition from the fluid to the solid state — in other words, and
in illustration — the effects of temperature and moistui'e, and
viscidity of solution in modifying the process of crystallization
and the forms and structure of the resulting crystals. This
subject has been already very ably brought before us by Mr.
Hislop, and also by Mr Martin, on tlie part of Mr. Hookham,
and I think we have good reason to hope that we shall soon be
favoured with the results of the further observations and experi-
ments made by these gentlemen.

I am naturally enough led on to another topic of the widest
interest. It is needless to remind you of the almost unlimited
field for research afforded by the myi-iads of plants and animals
revealed to us by the microscope, but of the very existence of which,
without the microscope, we should be ignorant. Everyone who
has had the opportunity, must have felt a peculiar kind of fascina-
tion in watching the changes and movements of these tiny but
wondrous organisms. Now, with regard to these organisms there
appears to have been, and still to be a too great tendency on the
part of microscopists to multiply species. But surely it is a better
thing to do, to show clearly developmental or other relation-
ship between two or more different forms, than simply to find some
hitherto undescribed form, and give to it a new specific or generic

THE PEESIDENT's ADDRESS. 103

name. The comi^lote life-history of almost every one of these
microscopic living things — whether plant or animal, or neither one
nor the other, but something between the two — has yet to be
traced out and written. Much has been attempted. Something
has been achieved. Much more remains to be done. Let me point
out one direction in which experiment may usefully be brought to
the aid of simple observation.

The influence of external circumstances on the development of
the individual, and more remotely on the more or less lasting
characteristics of the species, is a subject fraught with interest. It
is one too which has of late engaged the earnest attention of
students in every department of natural history.

Now, the living beings which especially come under the ken of
the microscopist are of all others the easiest to watch throughout
the whole period of their several existences. Their metamorphoses
are speedy, their lives are short, and generation very quickly follows
generation. Tlieir external conditions may be controlled and regulated
to a certain extent with ease. Temperature and light may be varied
with some degree of accuracy. Food and atmosphere may be varied
also, though perhaps with more difficulty. Surely in such case
it must be comparatively easy to make out something as to the
power of external circumstances to cause modification of the indi-
vidual, and afterwards variation of the so-called species.

Thus, gentlemen, though I have not told you much of advances
made, I have ventured to point out some few out of the many
directions in which it seems to me there are some prospects of rich
results to the able and industrious worker.

And now, in one way or other, I have been over the three stock
subjects of "the Presidential Address." I venture however to
trespass still further upon your indulgence.

There are at least two ways in which the cause of science may be
promoted. First, something new may be ascertained ; secondly,
the knowledge of what has been already ascertained may be more
widely spread. Now with respect to the progress of microscopical
science during the past year, granting that no great discoveries
have been made, yet it cannot be doubted that very many persons
who before knew nothing of the use of the microscope have learnt
something, and many more who knew a little have learnt much.
The stream has not deepened perhaps, nor even has it advanced

104 THE president's ADDRESS.

very rapidly in its onward course ; but assuredly the waters of
knowledge have been spreading over a larger and larger area.

The microscope has now fully entered what may be called the
third period of its general history. At first it was little better than
a toy. It served to kindle wonder and to excite curiosity ; and
BO far, perhaps, it was useful. But it failed altogether to satisfy
the earnest student of nature. Correctness of interpretation could
not be ensured until greater clearness of vision was obtained. In
its next stage of development the microscope became an instru-
ment of research of almost unrivalled value. By its aid dis-
coveries of the greatest interest and importance were made in rapid
succession. Fields for investigation hitherto unknown, but now
found full of rich promise, were opened up. New departments of
science were created. But though the harvest was rich, the workers
were few ; and these few for the most part were of those who de-
voted themselves more or less exclusively to scientific pursuits.
Now however in this, the third period of its history, the
microscope has come into much more general use. It is still
the instrument of strict scientific research. In the hands of
the few it goes on yielding results of increasing accuracy and
truthfulness, and therefore of increasing value. It enables us to
see clearly where before we had but dim glimpses. And thus it
continues to aid us in our attempts to solve some of the deepest,
and most intricate problems of our material being. But more than
this, the microscope is now in the hands of the many. Its value
is recognised in the instruction of the yoimg. To the student of
abstract science and to the man of letters, it affords a refreshing
change of study and occupation ; and the active man of business
finds it a never-failing scource of amusement and recreation of the
truest and best kind.

This consideration leads me to topics in which we are all
interested — I mean the present success and future prospects of the
Quekett Microscopical Club. It is said that the talk of lovers is
so interesting becaiise, with whatever subject they start, the
conversation soon comes round to themselves. And thus we come
round to speak of ourselves.

Well, gentlemen, I think we may most fairly and most heartily
congratulate ourselves upon the position of our Club. We have
been eminently successful thus far ; and there is every prospect

THE president's ADDRESS. 105

of a still more eminently successful future before us. You
have heard the Report just read. I need not offer any comment
on the several items. Our numbers, our financial position, the
attendances at our meetings, the interesting character of the dis-
cussions carried on, the establishment of our Journal — these and
many other subjects alluded to in the Report, may, I think, be
regarded with satisfaction by every one interested in the wellbeing
of the Club. When the Quekett Microscopical Club was first pro-
jected, there were many who said that such a Club was not wanted,
and would never find room. Such objections have been effectually
answered and silenced by the signal success which has been so
speedily achieved. Nay more, — we now hear expressions of regret,
and even of surprise that our Club was not earlier started.

The success of any undertaking in which we are engaged may
legitimately enough be considered matter for congratulation, on
account of the personal satisfaction which such success affords us.
But in the present case, I think we may congratulate ourselves
on far higher grounds than those merely of pride and pleasure in
the reward already gained, and the encouragement offered us to
go on.

The success of the Quekett Microscopical Club affords incontro-
vertible evidence of an already wide spread, and still more widely
spreading interest in the use of the microscope, and the study of
its marvellous revelations. The fact of which we thus have evi-
dence appears to me matter for congratulation, because I believe
that the microscope is capable of affording very valuable aid in the
great work of education. Allow me to ask you for a few minutes
to consider the use of the microscope from an educational point of
view.

You will at once understand that I do not now use the words
education and educational in the restricted senses in which they are
too often wrongly employed. School work and college work, as
commonly accepted, together with the special studies preparatory
for profession or business, really constitute but a small part of edu-
cation rightly understood. In its full, broad sense, education im-
plies the drawing out and developing, the strengthening and main-
taining by exercise, the various faculties and powers with which we
are endowed. It is a process which begins in our very earliest
days, and goes on throughout our lives. We are often un-
conscious alike of its progress and direction ; and we sometimes feel

i2

106 THE president's ADDRESS.

surprise when awakened to the results. In any study or pursuit
there are two possible sources of advantage. There is, first, the
practical utility of the knowledge gained, or the object attained;
and secondly, the beneficial effect of the study or pursuit upon the
mental or physical powers of the individual. The former may be
considered as indicating in a certain sense the commercial — the latter
the educational — advantage of the study or pursuit.

Now when we consider the subject from the point of view I have
thus hastily and imperfectly indicated, it becomes easy to see how
valuable an aid the microscope may be in the process of general
education, and how much more widely than is often supposed it
is capable of being rendered useful.

Allow me to offer you two or three illustrations of the educational
aspects of the use of the microscope.

First, — with regard to the Senses. In the work of education, as
ordinarily understood, no systematic attempt is made, so far as I
know, to educate the faculty of observation. Attempts are made
to strengthen the memory, to draw out and exercise the calcula-
ting and reasoning faculties, and to teach discrimination in the use
of language. At any rate, school and college studies are com-
monly accredited as being attempts having such tendencies. But
the observing faculties are too often left to take their chance — to
be awakened by accident, and fostered and developed by fortuitous
circumstances. The playground, the cricket field, and out-of-school
occupations thus afford opportunities not supplied in the class room,
or at the Professor's lecture. But systematic cultivation is need-
ful for the production of the finest fruits and best results. The
education of the observing faculties being thus neglected, naturally
enough the importance of accurate observation is liable to be
ignored. To the mere word-weaver, however clever — to the mere
reason er, however logical — the easy fictions of the imagination are apt
to be as acceptable as the hard facts of observation. A most emi-
nent logician and divine is said to have been a disciple of Hahne-
mann the Globulist ; and a most distinguished mathematician has
been believed to be an ally of Home the Spiritualist. There is
nothing surprising in this. The study of mathematics and logic
does not necessarily involve the cultivation of the powers of obser-
vation and investigation. But it is impossible that the wqJI edu-
cated observer — the rightly trained investigator — could ever accept
the absurd conclusions attributed to the acute logician and the ac-

THE president's ADDEESSi 107

complished mathematician to whom I have alluded. Keadincss and
accuracy of observation are likely to be of more service to most
men in this work-a-day world than any amount of what is called
scholarship, even together with the high development of the
faculties especially cultivated in its attainment.

Now, when a man is at work with his microscope he is not only
leaniing something about the object he may be examining, but he is
educating and exercising, in various ways, his observing faculties.

In the first place, obviously enough, the microscopist learns to
use his eyes. And the eyes themselves, if rightly used, and
not abused, are thereby improved. The habit of seeing quickly,
observing accurately, and discriminating minutely is insensibly
acquired, or at any rate effectively cultivated. This habit be-
comes of the greatest service in every day life. As a man uses the
dumb bells to develope his muscular powers, so he may use his
microscope to develope his visual powers, and with an equal prospect
of success. There is, however, this difference in favour of the
microscope, that in using it knowledge is gained in addition to the
advantage derived from the exercise of the sense of sight.

Again, the microscopist necessarily educates his sense of touch,
and practises himself in the use of his hands. And how great a
gain is this ! What a difference there must be between the powers
of manipulation of the novice who turns down his instru-
ment till he smashes his object, and the experienced worker
who at once easily and accurately focusses his one-fiftieth
of an inch object glass. No one can become a successful micro-
scopist without acquiring in a very high degree delicacy of touch,
and lightness, accuracy, flexibility, and steadiness of manipulation.
These same qualities are most useful in a hundred different ways.
The value of an educated hand is not half appreciated, and yet from
time to time we become practically sensible of it. Let me tell you
an anecdote in illustration : — A gentleman calling one morning,
earlier, perhaps, than he ought, found his surgeon doing some
microscopical work — dissecting out, I believe, the pygidium of a
flea. In reply to questions asked, the nature of the work was ex-
plained, and an attempt was made to excite interest in the object.
The result was a somewhat contemptuous enquiry — " What good
can it do a surgeon to dissect out the posterior parts of a flea ? "
Sometime afterwards the gentleman in question had occasion to
avail himself of the services of his surgeon in a very painful and

108 THE president's ADDRESS.

somewhat serious malady. One day he said — " I can't think how
it is, but your fingers seem to be very different to those of any one
else ; they go at once to the point ; you remove the dressings, in-
troduce the probe, re-dress the wound, and it's all over, almost
without my knowing it — certainly without my being inclined or
able to resist." " Do you recollect," said the surgeon, " laughing
at me for dissecting a flea ? Well, doing such work as that has
taught me how to use my fingers. What would be fatal clumsiness
in dissecting a flea is dehcacy itself in operating upon you ! "

It would be easy to multiply illustrations of the every day value
of that facility of manipulation and delicacy of touch which the
microscopist necessarily acquires in the pursuit of his investigations;
but I forbear. Each of you, doubtless from personal observation
or experience, could supply many illustrations. Do not forget them
when estimating the educational value of the use of the microscope.

In the next place, with regard to the Intellectual Faculties^ there
are very many ways in which the use of the microscope affords
opportunity for the development of the intellect. Speaking gener-
ally, it is obviously impossible to work honestly and industriously in
any department of natural science without profitably exercising the
intellectual faculties, in one way or other, to a greater or less extent.
In all such labour there is profit. But to take a special illustra-
tion, the microscopist has not only to learn to observe accurately ;
he must also learn to interpret correctly. In observation the senses
are especially called into play ,• but interpretation is essentially an
operation of the intellect. Let the same object be placed before
half-a-dozen observers, and let a full account be demanded from
each. Within certain limits all will probably agree. Beyond
such limits all may strikingly differ. As to what is seen there will
be unanimity ; but as to what is understood, there may arise the
greatest differences. Such differences will probably be found to
depend upon intellectual differences between the several observers.

In learning to interpret correctly, the microscopist has a fine field
for the exercise of various powers of mind. He must learn to dis-
criminate between what is seen and what is supposed ; he must
learn how far he may safely advance, and where he must pause.

The would-be discoverer is too apt to see a little, to imagine a
great deal, and then to elaborate results which for the moment
charm the fancy, but which are, as they soon prove, altogether base-
less and unreliable. The microscopist must learn especially to

THE president's ADDRESS. 109

avoid seeking in his imagination what his observation fails to shew,
and drawing thence conclusions which investigation fails to support.
This lesson should be constantly before him ; and surely it is a
lesson that, if well learnt, must have good eflFect far beyond the
limited domain of mere microscopical studies.

Lastly,— with regard to the Moral Qualities. It is needless forme
to say anything respecting the general tendency of the study of any
department of natural science to enlarge, to elevate, and to refine. It
is equally needless for me to dwell upon the exquisite beauty, the in-
finite variety, and the almost boundless numbers of the objects re-
vealed to us by the microscope, and the effect which the contempla-
tion of such objects must have upon the thoughtful mind. Tongues
and pens far more eloquent than mine, have found these topics
fertile subjects for discourse. But permit me to remind you of one
quality of which the microscopist is eminently in need, and which
therefore he caimot help cultivating — a quality too, which stands a
man in good stead over and over again almost every day of his
life. I mean patience. No man can be a successful miscroscopist
who has not a well-nigh inexhaustible fund of patience. In the
collection, the preparation, preservation, and examination of objects
how much patience is required ! It is not enough for the micro-
scopist to " learn to labour " — he must " learn to wait," Often
and often it happens that an object upon which much time and
much earnest labour have been spent must be laid on one side, and
carefully kept and attended to from time to time for a long period
before it is ready for examination. And if patience fails, the speci-
men is spoilt and time and labour are all but wasted.

I need say no more on this point. All of you who have been
successful know by experience how much patience you have exer-
cised. And those of you — if such there be — who have hitherto
failed to achieve satisfactory results, where others have succeeded,
will, I think, be ready to admit that want of patience may help to
explain your failure.

Thus, then, gentlemen, I have ventured to offer to you a few
remarks on the use of the microscope in its relation to general
education. What I have said can only be regarded as suggestive,
not as conclusive, much less as exhaustive on any one point. But
I think I have said enough to justify our mutual congratulations
on the success of our club, and the evidence this success affords of
the growth and spread of a genuine and deep interest in the use of
the microscope and the study of its revelations.

110 THE president's ADDRESS.

There is an old fable of a man who, dying, bequeathed his field
to his sons, and told them that if they would but dig diligently
they would find great treasure. The sons dug diligently — they
found no hoard of gold as they expected, but the well dug field
produced an abundant harvest. Thus the sons reaped the rewards,
and acquired the habit, of persevering industry.

So the young microscopist may begin his researches, expecting
to make some brilliant discovery. He may utterly fail to do so.
And yet his work, if honest work, will not have been thrown away.
He will have learnt much. He will have gained much that he did
not seek — perhaps something more truly valuable than that which
his first ambitious thought suggested. We cannot all of us be
Queketts, Carpenters, or Beales, but every one of us can do some-
thing — we can advance ourselves, and we can help those
around us. And if what I have said be true, everyone
who works well with his microscope during such oppor-
tunities as he may have, cannot fail to become in more
senses than one " a wiser and better man." He will learn to
use his eyes and his hands ; his faculties of observation will be edu-
cated ; he will learn to interpret correctly what he sees ; he will
learn that fancies are not to be trusted, and that though the ima-
gination may suggest, it can never justly take the place of observa-
tion ; he will practice himself in patience ; he will have ever ready
at command an unlimited supply of objects, which can never fail at
once to stimulate and to feed his interest, wonder, and deepest
admiration.

And now, gentlemen, it only remains for me to express my sense
of our very great obligations to the gentlemen of our Committee
and of our several Sub-Committees, and especially to our indefati-
gable Secretary, Mr. Bywater. The thanks of all of us are due to
these gentlemen for the able manner in which they have fulfilled
their duties. My thanks are especially due to them for the un-
varying consideration, and courtesy, and kindly feeling they have
always been so ready to display in our mutual intercourse.

Gentlemen, I thank you all most sincerely for the patience and
attention with which you have hstened to me this evening.

HI

NOVELTIES.

Wright's Microscopic Collecting Bottle. — This convenient
contrivance has just been introduced by Mr. Wriglit, of 59, Sbep-
herdess-walk, City-road, for the purpose of collecting and retaining
the minute objects which may be floating, sparingly or otherwise,
in water obtained by the dipping bottle. It consists of a bottle
with a moveable cap, in which is cemented
two tubes with screw tops. One of
these projects an inch or more above
the other, which is prolonged a little
downwards, and has its mouth enlarged
into a trumpet or funnel shape. Across
the mouth of this a piece of fine muslin,
or other more suitable porous material,
is stretched. The loose funnel shown is placed in the mouth of the
higher tube, and the water containing the organisms which it is
wished to retain is poured into it. As soon as the bottle is full, the
water rises through the porous material placed across the lower end
of the inner tube, and runs off, leaving behind it and in the bottle the
diatoms, desmids, entomostraca, &c., which may have been floating
therein. Any quantity of water may thus be deprived of the
minute objects floating in it, without the troublesome, imperfect,
and destructive process of first filtering through a piece of muslin,
and then reversing the filtering material in the mouth of the bottle,
to detach the deposit.

For collecting larger objects, or placing plants, &c., in it, the cap
of the bottle is made to take off.

Fiddian's New Eclipse Metallic Lamp Chimney and
Shade. — Under the above name, Mr. Collins, of Gt. Titchfield-street,
has introduced a substitute for the glass lamp chimneys, which we
know to our vexation to be so easily fractured, at the very time
when they are most wanted. It consists of a copper chimney, of
the same shape as the ordinary glass ones, with a two inch aperture
cut in the front of the globular portion. Into this opening is fitted
a white or blue glass, with parallel surfaces. The inside is lined
with white, so that an intense and pure light, the rays of which are
parallel, is obtained. Perfect shade from all extraneous light from
the eye of the observer, and freedom from the annoyance of broken
glass chimneys, are among the advantages claimed for this con-
trivance.

112

qtiee:ett microscopical club.

JUNE 26th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.
The following donations were announced :—

" Land and Water," from the Editor ; " Science Gossip," from the Publisher ;
Paper "On Butteriy Scales," from Mr. Wonfer ; " The Naturalists' Circular,"
from the Editor ; fifteen slides of feras, seeds, &c., from Mr. E. T. Lewis ; one
slide of crystals of gold, from Mr. W. H. Golding, two slides from Mr. Curties ;
and a slide of Navicula spherifera, from Mr. Kitton, through Mr. Hailes.
The thanks of the members were unanimously voted for these donations.
The following gentlemen were proposed as members of the Club : — Mr. James
Wm. Groves, Dr. John Augustus Tulk, P.G.S., F.R.M.S., Mr. William
Holmes, M.R.C.S., Mr. Fred. Eowland Jackson, Mr. James F. Wight, Mr.
Edward Grubbe, C.E., Mr Robert Se well. Rev. Richard Nathaniel Jennings,
B.A., and Mr. James Rowe, M.R.C.V.S.

Thirteen gentlemen whose names had been proposed for membership at the
last meeting were then balloted for, and subsequently declared duly elected.

The President announced that the next meeting would be the annual business
meeting of the Club. The Secretary read the following names of gentlemen
recommended by the Committee for election at the ensuing meeting : —
For President— Mr. Arthur E. Durham.

For Vice-Presidents— Dr. Braithwaite, Mr. M. C. Cooke, Dr. Dempsey, and
Mr. T. C. S. Roper.

For Committee— Mr. T. W. Burr, Mr. F. W. Gay, Dr. Gray, and Mr. R. 1 .
Lewis, and for re-election to fill vacancies, Mr. J. Bockett, and Mr. Ket-
teringham.

The Secretary read the following notices of alterations in, and additions to
the laws, to be proposed at the next meeting :—

Rule 2— That the Editor of the Journal be ex-oficio a member of the Com-
mittee.

That the four senior members of Committee shall retire annually, and shall
not be eligible for re-nomination by the Committee, except for the purpose of
filling vacancies, but may be nominated for re-election by independent members
of the Club.

113

Rule 7— To strike out the words—" But that any member proposed for elec-
tion after the 31st March iu each year shall be exempt from subscription until
the following July in each year."
And an alteration in Rule 9, respecting balloting papers.
Tiie Secretary read the following notice of alteration in Rule 2, proposed by
Mr. M. C. Cooke :—

That the remainder of Rule 2, after the words "shall retire annually," be
struck out, and in place of them be added the words " but neither they nor
any of them, nor more than two of the Vice-Presidents, shall be eligible for re-
election."

Mr. Cooke asked leave to withdraw the first portion of his proposed amend-
ment relating to the Committee, as the alterations proposed by the Committee
met the case.
Mr. T. C. White and Mr. Suffolk were appointed auditors.
The following objects were announced for exhibition : —

Crystallised Silver, by Mr. T. Oxley ; Coscinodiscus from Melville Bay,
shown under a half-inch objective and binocular by Mr. H. Grouch ; Tubules in
the corium of the Crab, by Mr. Martinelli ; Abdomen of Hoplia cserulea, by Mr.
Marks j Pandorina Morum, from Leatherhead, by Mr. Hainworth ; Wing of
Morpho Menelaus, by Mr. R. T Lewis ; and Forameuifera from the Phillipine
Islands, by Mr. H. P. Hailes.

Mr. Cooke announced that he had received from Maine some Canada balsam,
for trial by members, and from Schonbeck, near Magdeburg, six slides of slate,
in reply to the circular issued by the Club ; also a number of slides for exchange
from Herr Weissiiog, and a hundred slides, also for exchange from Mr. Gould,
of North Bridgton, Maine, U.S., principally consisting of diatoms, in sets of 14
each.

Mr. Cooke also exhibited a slide containing 400 diatoms, comprising 370
species, arranged in four squares, each one of which is referred to in a key.
The slide was by Mr. Moeller, of Wedel, in Holstein, and duplicates might
be obtained at the price of three pounds each.

The President noticed the presence at the meeting of Mr. W. J. Letsom,
H.M. Charge d'Aifaires at Moute Video, and President of the Microscopical
Society of Monte Video.

Mr. Hislop drew attention to four slides of crystals of sulphate of copper which
he presented to the cabinet of the Club. The meeting was reminded of a paper
on the subject read at a previous meeting, which described results which were not
quite in accordance vnih. those arrived at by the speaker. Specimens of these
latter would be found in the slides presented. No. 1 exhibited very fine spirals,
resembling a tuft of hair twisted in a spiral form. These were obtained at a
low temperature. No. 2 was crystallised at a higher temperature, but here the
spirals were lost and replaced by stars. Nos. 3 and 4 exhibited the effects of a
still higher temperature, giving very beautiful circular crystals, with spiral
strise, resembling the strige on a diatom, Mr. Hislop stated that he was con-
tinuing his experiments, and hoped to be able to add some further specimens
before long.

Mr. J. A. Archer then read a paper " On Tobacco."
A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Archer.
The proceedings terminated with a conversazione.

114
JULY 24th, 1868.

ANNUAL MEETING.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The following donations were announced : —

' ' Land and Water," from the Editor ; ' ' Science Gossip," from the Publisher ;
"The Popular Science Review," from the Publisher ; and the "Naturalists'
Circular," from the Editor.

The thanks of the club were voted to the donors.

The following were the names of gentlemen proposed for membership : — Mr.
Frank Crisp, Mr. Francis R. H. Heawood, Mr. Charles Atkinson, Mr. John
Cousens, Mr. Y. Duer, Mr. Alexander L.Donaldson, Mr. Charles J. Leaf, F.L.S.,
President of the Old Change Microscopical Society, and Mr. T. G. Ranee.

The ballot then proceeded for the ten gentlemen whose names were proposed
at the previous meeting, and who were afterwards declared duly elected.

The President then called upon the Secretary to read the following report of
the committee for the past year : —

"Your committee have much pleasure in reporting that the success of the
Club continues to advance, and that the keen interest evinced by the members
in previous years has by no means abated during the year now brought to a
close.

' ' The first among the many pleasing circumstances to which the committee
•would desire to draw attention is that the Council of University College have
most liberally renewed their permission to the Club to meet in this Library
during another year. This is a privilege well calculated to encourage and pro-
mote the objects for which the Society was originally instituted. It therefore
becomes a boon for which the committee and members must be equally grateful.
"After considerable deliberation your committee succeeded in effecting such
arrangements as have enabled them to commence the publication of a Quarterly
Journal of Proceedings, and under the editorship of Mr. HisLOP two parts of
the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club have been already issued. The
committee trust that the form in which the Journal has appeared and the matter
it has contained have been generally satisfactory to the members of the Club.
It is hoped that the Journal may be the means of rendering absent members
better acquainted with the proceedings of the Club, and so aid in promoting
their co-operation in the cause of microscopical science.

The Committee cannot do otherwise than allude to the Soiree of the Club
given in March last They feel that the success of the evening, and the grati-
fication afforded to th > members and their friends, were greatly due to the
exertions of those of our number who contributed specimens for exhibition, or
in other way;? aided in carrying out the general arrangements.

The many interesting papers read during the past year are now more or less
fully recorded in the Journal. It is therefore unnecessary to enumerate them
here.

115

The number of slides now in the Cabinet amount to 700, the following addi-
tions having been received during the year : —

Anonymous

14

Mr, J. Meacher .

1

Mr. J. A. Archer

5

„ W. Moginie

1

,, C. Collins .

1

„ G. Potter .

5

,, M. C. Cooke

250

,, T. Eoss

20

„ T. Curties .

2

Capt. St. John .

1

Dr. Dempsey

12

Mr. T. Simpson

8

Mr. W. H. Golding .

13

„ H. A. Smith

14

„ H.F. Hailes .

5

„ T.C.White

5

„ W. Hislop .

4

America . . . .

14

,, F. Kitton .

3

Germany . . . .

5

„ R. T. Lewis

25

„ S. J. Mclntire .

26

437

,, J. Martin .

3

" By numerous donations and some purchases, various important additions
have been made to the Books of Reference in the Library, whereby its capa-
bility of usefulness has been considerably extended.

' ' Your Committee have pleasure in recording the increasing success of the
Excursions, which form so exceedingly important a feature in the working of
our Club. It is hoped that the rasults which the Excursion Committee may be
able to make known at the termination of the season will bring many interest-
ing facts as to localities and habitats prominently before us, and thus stimulate
members to renewed exertions, and lead to more methodical records of obser-
vation in the future.

"Tour Committee have under consideration plans for affording members
increased opportunities of meeting during ihe winter months for conversation,
as well as for the exhibition of recent captures or other objects of interest.
Such meetings are intended in some measure to supply the place of the Summer
Excursions. Should the endeavours of the Committee to effect such an
arrangement be successful, they have reason to believe the result will be most
advantageous to the Club.

" Since the last Annual Meeting 133 gentlemen have joined the Club, and
during that period 24 names have been withdrawn ; a few in consequence of
death, and others by retirement. Consequently the total number of subscrib-
ing members on the 30th of June is 382.

" The Committee cannot conclude their Report without expressing their
thanks for the assistance so cheerfully rendered by Mr. Jaques as Librarian and
by Mr. Ruffle as Curator. Their cordial thanks are also due to Mr. Levns for
his valuable reports ; to Messrs. Arnold, Gay, Reeves, and Suffolk, the Excur-
sion Committee; and to Messrs. Beckett, Hailes, Hislop, and Marks, the
Exchange Committee-

"The Committee hope that the continued success of the Club will promote
increased activity among the members, and that by fostering a unanimity of
feeling and a uniformity of action they will enlarge its sphere of usefulness and
more fully develope the many advantages which it offers."

June 30th, 1868.

Dr. Braithwaite moved that the report of the committee be adopted, printed,
and circulated amongst the members.

The motion, having been seconded by Mr. M. C. Cooke, was put to the meeting
by the President, and carried unanimously.

The Secretary then read the following report of the Treasurer : —

RECEIPTS.

£ 8. d.
Balance in hand at last

Audit 35 7 3

Subscriptions received from
July 1, 1867, to June
30th, 1868 162 10

116

TREASURER'S REPORT.
June 30th, 1868.

PAYMENTS.

£197 17 3

£ B. d.

Printing and Stationery ... 26 14 10

Postages 9

Advertisements 19 6

Attendants 2 12 6

Property purchased 19 5 1

Petty Expenses 11 8

Expenses of Soire'e 39 7 6

Journal, Nos I. and II. —

nett cost 26 6 5

Balance at Banker's 62 9

£197 17 3

ROBERT HARDWICKE, Treasurer.

We, the undersigned, having examined the above Statement of Income and
Expenditure, and the Vouchers referring thereto, hereby certify that the said
Account is correct.

W.T.SUFFOLK, } ^.^itors.

THOS. C. WHITE, >

The adoption of the report was moved by Mr, Watkins, seconded by Mr.
John Hopkinson, and carried unanimously.

The alterations in Rule 2, proposed by the committee, and of which due
notice had been given (see Page 112), were put, and carried unanimously.

Mr. Cooke's motion, that the words "and two of the Vice-Presidents" be
added to Rule 2, was also put and carried.

The next proposed alteration was to strike out from rule 7 the words, " but any
member proposed for election after the 31st of March in each year shall be
exempt from subscription until the foUovring July in the same year."

Some discussion on this proposition ensued, and eventually Mr. M. C. Cooke
moved to substitute for the words pi'oposed to be left out, the words " That any
member elected in May or in June shall be exempt from subscription until the
following July of the same year." This motion having been seconded was put
and carried.

The next proposition for consideration was to omit " that the words on an-
other paper" from rule 9.

This alteration was also put and carried.

Mr. Collins and Mr. Suffolk having been appointed scrutineers, the ballot for
officers for the ensuing year took place, and subsequently the gentlemen nomi-
nated by the committee (see Page 112) were declared duly elected.

The President announced that the following objects were contributed for ex-
hibition : — A specimen of galls on the Oak, by Mr. Martinelli ; Iridescent
colours on the wing of a Fly, by Mr. Marks; and an apparatus for Polarisa-
tion by reflection, by Mr. Bestall.

Mr. Cooke, the secretary for foreign correspondence, announced that he had
received a circular from the American Microscopical Society of New York, ex-
pressing the Society's wish to be placed in communication with other societies.
He also stated that he had received communications together with lists of

117

specimens, from Professor Hyrtl, of Vienna, and from Dr. Leopold Kirchner,
of Caplitz, and stating tlieir wishes to exchange.

The President then delivered an address {see page 95.)

Mr. Watkins and Mr. M'Intire moved and seconded a vote of thanks to tha
Presideut, which was carried unanimously.

Papers were announced for the next meeting by Mr, Moore and Mr.
Martinelli ; and the meeting adjourned.

AUGUST 28th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The President, on taking the chair, expressed his gratification at meeting
the members on the commencement of another year's proceedings.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The following names were proposed for membership : — Mr. Charles Cecil Capel,
Mr. Arthur Robert Andrew, Mr. James E. Eddy, Mr. J. W. Spencer Warre.

Eight gentlemen proposed at the last meeting were then balloted for, and
subsequently declared duly elected.

The following donations were onnounced : —

A new Collecting Bottle, from Mr. Wright ; " The Catalogue of the Paris
Exhibition of Insects of August, 1868," from Mr. E. T. Lewis ; ' ' The Natural-
ists' Circular," from the Editor ; " Science Gossip," from the Publisher.

Thanks of the Club were voted to the donors.

The following objects were announced for exhibition: —

Wing of a Mosquito, by Mr. M'Intire ; Foramenifera, from Dog's Bay, co.
Galway, from Mr. Glover by Mr. Euffle ; a new Portable Dissecting Microscope,
by Mr. Hooper ; a new form of Collecting Bottle, by Mr. Wright ; the Electric
Spark from an induction coil, with magnesium terminals, shewn under the
Microscope by Mr. Golding.

Mr. Martinelli read a paper " On the Tubules in the Shell of the Crab."

The author of this paper recommended the use of hydrochloric acid, and also
of heat, in treating the crab shell, in order to exhibit the tubules clearly.

Mr. Breese expressed his conviction that the use of either of these methods
would destroy all appearance of tubules, and thought from the low power, used
by Mr. Martinelli, that he could not be speaking of the same appearances
described in a previous paper by Mr. Slade, which required a power of about
1300 to shew them.

This opinion was subsequently confirmed by the examination of Mr. Marti-
nelli's specimens ; and Mr. Slade thought that the cavities seen in them had
been produced by dissolving out the lime.

Mr. Wright's collecting bottle was exhibited by Mr. Brain. The apparatus
is described at page 111.

Mr. Mclntire brought before the meeting the subject of the identity of the
mosquito and the English gnat. Some time ago he felt much interested in the
subject of mosquitoes, and through the medium of "' Science Gossip," he had

118

asked whether ttere was any difference between the gnat and the mosquito,
The answer given was (Vol. II., page 48) that there was good deal of difference-
but he found in Kirby and Spence that the characteristics differ so little that it
is difficult to distinguish them. This summer he had noticed numbers of a
large description of guat, and supposed that these were the creatures which
were the cause of so many letters being written to the public papers. He
believed it to be a fact that in some seasons the females, and in others the
males, preponderated, and as it is the females only which bite, this might
account for their being more troublesome at some periods than at others He
exhibited a gnat wing under his microscope that night, which exhibited iri-
descence, it being mounted dry for that purpose. To extract the lancets, he
found the best way was to put the head on a glass slide, and heat it over a lamp
in a drop of turpentine. It was doubtful to him whether there were five, six,
or seven lancets ; but in the majority he had seen only six. He thought the irri-
tation following the sting was generally caused by crushing the gnat before it
had withdrawn its lancets. They were thus broken into the flesh, and caused
much inflammation. He could see no apparatus for injecting poison into the
wound.

Mr. Breese had the authority of Mr. McLachlan for asserting the complete
identity between the gnat and the mosquito, and also for the fact that the size
of the gnat was much increased in warm weather.

Dr. Braithwaite called attention to the fact that the term mosquito was but
a family name, in which about VJ species were known, varying very much in
size — one species from Australia not being half the size of an English gnat.

A Member from Woolwich had compared the species there found, and said
to be the mosquito, with common gnats, and could see no difference, and, in
fact, the same remark applied to species which he had received from New
Zealand.

The President confirmed these remarks by stating he had received specimens
from India, which did not differ from our own. He suggested that as high
temperature favoured decomposition, it was possible that gnats and flies in
the act of stinging might introduce animal matter in a poisonous state intothe
system. This would cause great and serious local irritation.

The Prefident announced the excursion of the ensuing month, and stated
that at the next meeting Mr. Slade would read a paper " Ou Preparing and
Mounting Sections of Teeth and Bone for Microscopic Examination."

The proceedings terminated with the usual conversazione.

Annual Dinner. — On June 23rd, those members who are in the habit of at-
tending the excursions, together mth several other members of the Club, dined
together at the Swan Inn, Leatherhead ; the chair was taken by the President,
Mr. Durham, and after the cloth was removed sundry toasts, loyal and compli-
mentary, were duly honoured. The company, after a short stroll in the neigh-
bourhood, returned to town by train.

THE JOUENAL

OF THE

^uchett llltrrnstnpual Chtir*

Notes on Preparing Sections of Bone and Teeth for
Microscopical Examination. By J. Slade.

(Read September 25th, 1868).

The title of the paper wliich I bring before the Club this even-
ing does not imply that I should occupy your time by recapitulating
all that has been written upon so well worked a subject. As the
minute structure of bone and tooth forms a part of the studies
of every medical student as well as the general microscopist,
it happens that these structures have received a larger share of
attention than has fallen to the lot of other structures which build
up the vertebrate animal. Hence it seems that we know a little
more, or, at all events, can say a little more of such structures than
of others.

Almost every object under the Microscope presents different
appearances under different powers. Such appearances are to be
carefully noted, and no structure can be said to be sufficiently
studied unless it has passed through a series of examinations, with
powers varying from 50 to 1,000 diameters.

Ordinary care in the preparation may be all very well for objects
to be examined from with 50 to 100 diameters. More care is
necessary for objects from 100 to 400, but for powers higher than
this the delicacy of manipulation required in preparing, and the
amount of time consequently consumed thereby, often taxes too
severely the patience and time of men engaged in ordinary business.

Having employed myself lately in the endeavour to verify for
my own uses some of the investigations detailed in Kolliker's

K

120 J. SLADE ON PREPARING SECTIONS OP BONE AND TEETH

"■ Human Microscopic Anatomy," I have gained by successes and
failures a certain amount of experience, ■whicli I now bring here in
order to be criticised and discussed by any one who may have been
at work upon the same subject.

Bone, under a power of from 50 to 100 diameters, shows the
Haversian canals, with the bone in laminje surrounding them ;
under 200 or 300 diameters, that which appeared before merely as
black specks, turns out to be the spaces with radiating lines known
as "lacunae" and " canaliculi. " These lacunae and canaliculi vary
in size and form, and are in a general way characteristic of the
group of animals to which the specimen may belong. Dr. Carpen-
ter has in his " Manual " given measurements of examples taken
from each group of the vertebrata.

Under from 400 to 600 diameters a cell, with clear contents,
and a nucleus, is seen exactly filling the lacunse, and sometimes
even nmning up the canaliculi for a short distance.

All bone we know to be either ossified cartilage or membrane,
the nucleus of the lacunje is the nucleus of the previously existing
cartilage cell. As membrane has no definite structure like cartilage,
I once thought that a microscopic distinction might be detected in
the completely- formed bone ; but, after several experiments, I could
find none, and Kolliker states that there is none, and that pre-
viously to ossification taking place in a membrane, plasma cells
are produced, the nuclei of which form the nuclei of the lacunae.
Kolliker also states that the cells of the lacunae may be detached as
separate stellate cells by treating a section with dilute hydrochloric
acid, and then for a moment boiling in dilute caustic potash.
I have tried this, but failed ; nor have I yet been able to detect
the ultimate osseous granules of bone mentioned and figured in the
article on bone in the " English Cyclopaedia."

With respect to the preparation of bone for Microscopic examin-
ation, the operation is not difficult. Thin sections, well polished
and mounted dry, are usually considered best, but I prefer that
method described by Dr. Carpenter in his " Manual," page 702, in
which thick Canada balsam is used. If this method be properly
carried out, the lacunae and canaliculi come out beautifully defined,
even those of the deep-seated cells. The drawback is that the
balsam may run in and obliterate some of the cells situate at the
edge of the specimen. But if injury should thus happen to a
section, chloroform will speedily restore it to its original condition.

FOR MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. 121

All fossil bone that I have tried requires Canada balsam; indeed,
some of it is so very friable that it requires to be treated according
to Mr. Newton's process, described in the " Naturalists' Circular"
for September, which consists in soaking the specimen in Canada
balsam, largely thinned by chloroform, before it is roughly cut in
pieces preparatory to grinding down. Some specimens of
Ichthyosaurus must be treated thus, whilst Pterodactyle is brittle
and transparent, so that this method would obliterate the very
delicate canaliculi. The finest example of fossil bone which I
possess was the result of an experiment on a specimen of Coccos-
teus obloncnis, an old red sandstone fish from Caithness. In
examining a specimen split from one of those water-worn pebbles,
which frequently form the bed of a mountain torrent in the High-
lands, I detached a fragment with a knife's point, about the size
of a pin's head. This I soaked in turpentine and mounted in fluid
balsam ; this rendered the fragment somewhat transparent at the
edges, and I saw the lacunee and canaliculi completely injected with
a fine red material, rendering the finest of them beautifully defined.

The scales of Lepidotus from the Wealden are soft and opaque,
and require great care, but show lacunje exactly resembling those
of the living Lepidosteus. The bone of Dinornis differs in nothing
from recent bone, excepting the loss of the animal matter.

Another form in which calcareous matter is found to exist in
the animal body, is in the organs known as teeth. Here, in all
mammalian animals, it exists under three conditions, viz., enamel,
dentine, and cement.

A section of human tooth mounted in the ordinary way in
Canada balsam, under a moderate power, shows these materials
easily enough. The cement, — partaking, more or less of the cha-
racter of bone ; — the dentine, or ivory, as fine, undulating tubes ; —
the enamel also in parallel tubes, but evidently of a much denser
and firmer texture.

Under a high power the enamel is seen to consist of hexagonal
prisms, packed closely together. The dentine is seen as tubes run-
ning through a matrix ; the matrix itself, under the highest powers,
is stnictureless. Upon the table is the tooth of the horse and one
of the elephant, and the jaws, with the teeth entire, of a Cestracion,
or Port Jackson shark.

The two former show distinctly, even as hand specimens viewed
with a lens, the three component materials — enamel, dentine, and

K 2

122 J. SLADE ON PREPARING SECTIONS OF BONE AND TEETH

cement. For microscopical examination, sections can be reduced
thin enough without difficulty, as the hardness, combined with
some amount of elasticity, renders them easily manageable. And
by mounting in Canada balsam, but little of the structure is lost,
excepting, perhaps, the lacunte and canaliculi of tbe bone cells in
the cement.

Of all the fossil mammalian teeth with which I have any ex-
perience, that of the Megatherium is the most troublesome from
which to obtain fair results. The coarse vascular dentine, which
forms a large proportion of the tooth, crumbles away readily, even
after repeated macerations in fluid balsam.

The sections, mounted dry, and sold under the name of tooth of
ant-eater, and showing a structure unique for mammalian tooth,
are sections of a molar of the Aard-vark, or Orycteropus Capensis
— an animal belonging to the class Edentata, common in some parts
of Southern Africa, and occasionally known as the Cape ant-eater.
The armadillo, belonging to the same order as the preceding,
has small, simple teeth, composed of enamel, dentine, and cement.

For the elucidation of the ultimate structure of fish teeth, much
remains to be done, and a hasty glance over the plates in Owen's
" Odontography" and Agassiz's " Poissons Fossiles," awakens
the microscopist to a mine of research by no means exhausted.

Fish teeth are of two kinds — sharp and pointed, fitted for tearing
prey ; and flat, broad, and rounded, close set, like pavement, fitted
for crushing up mollusks and crustaceans. A good example of
this latter is the Cestracion lying on the table.

If we examine microscopically a number of specimens of both
kinds, we find them in the majority of cases to consist of dentine,
permeated by vessels which gradually diminish in size towards the
extremity of the tooth.

In others the vessels are absent, the substance being entirely
dentine ; external form being no guide to internal structure.

As examples of pointed teeth of vascular structure, we may take
Galeas, cod-fish, pike (recent), Lamna elegans, Oxyrrhina, Gale-
ocerdo, and Hemipristis (fossil). As examples of broad, crushing
teeth of vascular structure, we may take Myliobatis (recent),
iEtobatis, and Ptychodus.

Of the non-vascular dentine, we may mention the fossil genera,
Sphoerodus and Lepidotus. Some there are, such as the recent
Lepidosteus and the fossil Dendrodus, which from the replications

FOR MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION. 123

of the layers of dentine, form elegant patterns when seen in
section.

From their comparative softness, fish teeth can be readily re-
duced upon a common gi-indstone and hone, to a degree of suffi-
cient thinness for examination. Even the fossil ones may be
treated in the same way with success. But by slicing thick
ones, such as Ptychodus, Cochleodus, Myliobatis, &c., .on a
lapidary's wheel, much labour and material are saved.

Both recent and fossil specimens may be mounted in Canada
balsam. Some of the recent are evidently improved by first stain-
ing them in carmine, and some mounted in glycerine show the
vascular system beautifully distinct.

At the close of the paper the President observed that he had
paid a good deal of attention to the Microscopic structure of bone,
and could not admit that the best method of preparing such was
by grinding down. In his opinion, this method in many cases filled
up the cavities with debris, and thus obscured much which ought
to be seen. Under favourable circumstances, it might perhaps
answer for dry bones, where the form of the lacunae and canaliculi
was all that was required. But if we take a fresh bone, and with
a strong, sharp knife cut off a very tiny slice, which could be
easily done, and then immerse it in carmine dissolved in ammonia,
the ammonia being first neutralised by acetic acid, the walls of the
vessels w^hich penetrate the lacunte and canaliculi are by this means
stained crimson, and thus the true structure of bone is rendered
visible.

124 on a new meliceetian

On a New Melicertian and Some Varieties of Melicerta
KiNGENs. By J. G. Tatem,

Of the Reading Microscopical Society.

Some years since, a friend submitted to my examination a
Melicertian, which could not be assigned to any known genus.
Drawings were carefully made at the time, with the aid of the
neutral tint reflector, and copies of these I now beg leave to lay
before the members of the Quekett Club.

It will be seen that the new rotifer bears a general resemblance
to Limnias ceratophylli, from any close alliance with which, it is,
however, removed, by a higher type of organisation. A viscid
sheath, to which excrementitious and extraneous matters adhere,
equally characterises this species and Limnias ; but it is slightly
curved and more contracted at the base. The rotary disk is
bilobed, a double wreath of cilia surrounding its margin. Two
well developed water vascular canals or siphons, conspicuously
prominent when the animal is seen emerging from its sheath,
would indicate a nearer structural approximation to Melicerta than
to Limnias, in which these organs are altogether wanting. The
pharyngeal bulb also bears a close resemblance to that of Melicerta.
Length of sheath ^ ; of extended animal, about -Jg-.

In the Quarterly Journal of Microscopic Science (1867, p. 14),
Mr. Davis described a rotifer under the name of (Ecistes longi-
cornts, which appears to be nearly allied to the one now described
and figured, which that gentleman felt a cUfficulty in consigning to
any recognised genus, and while calling it an fficistes, and noting
its resemblance to Limnias, evidently considered it as belonging to
neither. Should it not rather have been brought forward as the
type of a new genus, in which the Tubicola I figure would have
found its place ? While, therefore, for the purpose of artificial
classification, venturing to constitute a new genus for their recep-
tion, for which the name of Limnioides is proposed, and the specific
one of myriophylli for that now described, I would yet enquire if
many of these animals are, after all, so generically distinct?
Whether through variability such connecting hnlvs may not even-
tually be met with as to afford reasonable grounds for suspecting
an insensible graduation into each other ? Found on MijriophijUum
spicatum and Ranunculus aquatilis, associated with Melicerta
ringens and Cephalo siphon Limnias, the idea not umiaturally pre-

AND SOME VARIETIES OF MELICERTA RINGEN3. 125

sents itself ; and if I shall not be considered too much infected
with Darwinian doctrines, I would hazard the assertion that these
three species, together with Limnias, have but one common origin.
Traced downwards from Melicerta ringens, through its varieties
(drawings of some of which are laid on the table for comparison
with the connecting link which the subject of our notice supplied),
it will be seen that by easy stages of degradation, through arrest
of development or suppression of parts, Limnias ceratophylli will
at length be arrived at.

In the variety of Melicerta, No. 1 (Fig. 2, pi. 1 ), we have an
animal, though otherwise perfect, in which the cup-like rotary
organ, which, for the sake of expressive phraseology, we will call
the " Pug-mill," is wholly wanting. It results, therefore, that
unable to mould pellets and construct the neat wall of masonry of
Melicerta jsroper, it is invested only with the ordinary amber coloured
gelatinous secretion.

In variety No. 2 (Figs. 3 and 4, pi. 7), a further arrest of de-
velopment has taken place ; the four-lobed rotary disk of Melicerta
is, though still ample, reduced to two, and without " Pug-mill,"
only rudely shaped excrementitious masses adherent to the gelatinous
investment are observed.

In the third variety (Fig. 1,2^1- 7), these conditions of degrada-
tion are still more advanced — no " Pug-mill," an undivided ciliary
organ, and but a single siphon.

Passing by Limnioides myriophylli (Figs. 3, 4, and 5, pi. QJ,
which we have already endeavoured to connect with Melicerta, we
come to Cephalosiplwn Limnias (Figs. 6 and 7, pi. 6J, with two
smaller rotary lobes and single siphon, which may possibly be formed
by the coalescence or soldering together of two siphonal tubes into
one long conspicuous canal, with a much contorted viscid sheath,
coated with extraneous substances ; and, lastly, we descend to
Limnias ceratopliylli (Figs. 1 and 2, pi. 6 J, with two small lobes
and water vascular canals wholly suppressed.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES.
> *»♦- <

Plate 6, Fig. 1 & 2, Limnias

ceratophylli X 100

Figs. 3, 4, 5, Limnioides

myriophylli X 190

Figs. 6 & 7, Cephalosi-
phon Limnias X 100

Plate 7, Fig. 2, Melicerta

ringens... Var. No. 1 X 190
Figs. 3, 4... Var. No. 2 X 100
Fig. 1 ...Var. No. 3 X 100

126

On the Proboscis of the Fly. By B. T. Lowne, M.E.C.S.

(Bead November 27th, 1868.;

The Proboscis of the Blow-fly (musca vomitoria, Linn.) is one of
the most complex and remarkable structures in the insect world.
It is composed of a cbitiiious frame-work, or skeleton, invested in a
loose membranous integument, moved by a complicated system
of muscles, and largely supplied with air by numerous tracheal
tubes.

The skeleton consists of parts homologous to all those usually
found in the mouths of insects, but some are so modified as only
to be recognised by studying other Diptera, and then, in order to
appreciate their true relations, it is necessary to examine specimens
which have not been subjected to pressure, but which have been
mounted with all their parts in their natural relations to each
other.

Nearest to the oral cleft, and occupying the upper half of the
proboscis, is a large shuttle-shaped piece, serving for the attach-
ment of numerous muscles, exsertors, and retractors of the whole
organ, as well as semi-circular fibres enclosing the oesophagus ; —
which lies in front of — but in immediate contact with — the posterior
portion of this piece, which is hollowed out to receive it above, and
which completely surrounds it below, forming a corneous tube for
its protection. This may fairly be considered homologous to the
fulcrum in bees, or it may be looked upon as the mentum.

Partially surrounding this, but closely connected with the integu-
ment, are two semi-circular bands of chitine, each bearing six to
eight stiff setse ; they support the large maxillary palpi, and repre-
sent the basal lobes of the maxillai of bees, the comb of which is
replaced by seta3 in the fly ; lower than these, and supported by
them are two thin, shield-like plates, covered with minute bristles
representing the small inner maxillary lobes of the Hymenoptera.

These parts with their muscles enclosed in a loose integument
form the basal joint of the proboscis ; when at rest this is with-
drawn into the oral cleft, the fulcrum then rests in the cavity of the
head, and the membranous integument which is attached round the
oral cleft forms an inverted funnel, as far as the insertion of the

B. T. LOWNE ON THE PROBOSCIS OF THE FLY. 127

maxillary palpi, the remainder of the proboscis lying within the
cavity so produced.

When the proboscis is at rest or retracted, the maxillary
palpi lie close to the margin of the oral cleft, directed forwards,
but when it is fully exserted, they are turned upward in contact
with its integument. As they are not apparently supplied with
any muscles, and from their position during exsertion of the
proboscis, appear as if turned out of the way of injury, this
would indicate that their fmiction is called into activity during the
period when they lie along the margin of the oral cleft, so that it
seems probable they assist the insect in its search for food ; in fact^
their position is the same as that of these organs in the Lepidoptera,
excej^t when the proboscis is exserted.

The second joint of the proboscis encloses two tubes ; the an-
terior of which forms the termination of the oesophagus, and con-
sists of parts homologous to the epiglottis and mandibles. This
tube is connected with the fulcrum by the membranous oesophagus,
and fonns an elbow-like joint protected from pressure behind by a
small semi-circular chitinous piece homologous to the mentum, or
accessory to it, if the larger portion which I have named the fulcrum
be considered as the homologue of that part.

The mandibles are further connected with the basal part of the
proboscis by a pair of levers, nearly a line in length, flattened out
at their upper extremity for the insertion of powerful muscles, and
strongly suggestive of the elongated tendons by which the mandi-
bles of insects are usually moved. Their action appears to be to
move the oesophageal tube, raising it slightly from the labium
against which it lies ; as well as to assist in folding the proboscis.

The posterior tube is homologous to the labium and labial palpi ;
it is complete above, but open in front below, partially enclosing
the oesophageal tube. It terminates in a triangular opening
between the lips of the proboscis, which are supported upon its
margin. In the embryonic or pupa state, this tube is represented
by three distinct rods, clearly homologues of the labium and labial
palpi, the second and third joints of the palpi being represented
by the margin of the triangular opening, so that the lips them-
selves may be considered appendages of the labial palpi.

Behind the labium are the terminal lobes of the maxillfe ; in the
young state these may be seen to be composed of two layers, an
inner membranous layer, largely supplied with air tubes, and an

128 B. T. LOWNE ON THE PROBOSCIS OF THE FLY.

outer chitinous structure developed upon it. These are permanently
separated, in such insects as Tabanus, in which the outer layer
forms a sheath for the lancets, and the inner alone enters into the
structure of the proboscis. In the blow-fly, both layers are united
in the adult insect, and give attachment to the muscles which move
the lips ; they terminate in long processes twisted at their junction
with the maxillse in such a manner as to form springs, which keep
the lips of the proboscis closed when at rest ; a powerful muscle is
inserted into them, which overcomes their elasticity, and opens the
lips, adding another to the already numerous known instances in
which elasticity is opposed to muscular force, where prolonged
muscular action would otherwise be necessary.

Perhaps I may be excused if I here mention two or three well-
known but important facts. Insects are supplied with a circulation
of air just as vertebrates are with a circulation of fluids, and
although I do not deny that the fluids of insects circulate, their
circulation is exceedingly imperfect and very sluggish. Now the
tracheal tubes of insects are by no means permanent in every case,
rapidly growing structures are supplied with an immense number
of trachese, which disappear a few hours after their appearance,
when the structures they supply are fully developed. Secreting
and excreting organs are permanently supplied with a large number
of tracheal tubes, but the number varies according to the activity of
the organ.

When the fly first emerges from the pupa, none of the muscles
of the proboscis are developed, nor are any of the chitinous struc-
tures hardened or opaque; the proboscis is filled with a milky cor-
puscular fluid, from which these parts are developed, it is then
largely supplied with trachese, and hangs down, as the insect is
quite incapable of moving it. In an hour or two the muscles are
developed and the insect retracts the organ, soon after its wings
are sufficiently dry to enable it to fly away. Most of the trachea? of
the proboscis disappear as soon as the chitinous parts are hardened.

Tracing back the oesophagus it will be found to bifurcate after
entering the thorax, one division passing upward and back-
ward into a muscular proventriculus and so into the stomach, the
other passing backward along the under surface of that viscus
enters the abdomen, near the base of which it opens into two large
abdominal crops, which, when filled with fluid, occupy nearly half
that cavity.

B. T, LOWNE ON THE PROBOSCIS OP THE FLY. 129

Tho abdominal crops are strongly muscular, and it is from
these that the copious saliva is poured with which the insect
moistens its food. The position of these crops is a marvellous
instance of adaptation, for the fly's head is exceedingly heavy
from the size of its eyes and optic ganglia, as well as from the
number of muscles moving the proboscis, so we find the abdo-
minal stomachs balancing the weight of the head by acting as a
counterpoise behind the wings.

By examining the labium it will be found that its superior ex-
tremity is prolonged, behind the joint of the proboscis, to about
half a line above the lower extremity of the fulcrum as a flexible
tube, which widens out at its upper part, so as to represent in some
degree the form of the human glottis and trachea. A large
tracheal tube, marked with a stronger spiral than any other
in the tracheal system of the head or thorax of the blow fly, ter-
minates in it, and if this be traced back, it will be seen to traverse
the head, and entering the thorax, to divide into two branches,
each portion passing outward into a sacculus, communicating with
the main lateral tracheal system of the insect.

I may here remark that the tubes fonning the tracheal system of
the abdomen, differ from those of the head and thorax very con-
siderably, not only in general arrangement, but also in the much
greater distinctness of the rings with which they are marked.

The air tube which surmounts the labium, opens upon its an-
terior surface, near the middle of that organ ; the air so conducted
through it passes to the triangular opening between the lips of the
proboscis, in a tube (labial tube), bounded behind and laterally by
the labium and labial palpi, and anteriorily, partly by membrane
and partly by the oesophageal tube, which opens into it just above
the triangular aperture.

The lips of the proboscis, when at rest, are closely applied to
each other ; their outer surface is rough and covered by numerous
long curved hairs, but their inner surface is smooth and soft,
covered with a yellow pigment, which washes away in water a short
time after the death of the fly ; these inner surfaces exhibit the so-
called false tracheal tubes.

When the organ is treated with liquor potassse and afterwards
mounted in balsam, the false tracheae appear to he imperfect on their
cutaneous surface, having a dentated margin ; as far as the chitin-
ous element is concerned this is really the case, and in the lips of

130 B. T. LOWNE ON THE PROBOSCIS OF THE FLY.

the fly, in the pupa state, this is even more apparent. In the
early stages these trachese are only indicated by transverse lines in
a flat membrane, the edges of which curl over as the insect ap-
jDroaches maturity ; but in the adult fly, if the recent lips be ex-
amined, it will be found that the tubes are covered by broad bands
of tissue, having a sinuous margin, and refracting light powerfully.
By examining the pupa proboscis, these will be seen to be reflected
from the margins of the false tracheae, leaving an exceedingly
minute fissure along the mesial line, on each side of which, lateral
fissures extend at right angles across the tracheal tube, one corres-
ponding to each dentation in the trachea itself. These fissures are
60 minute, that it requires a quarter-inch objective to show them
clearly. They probably serve to allow air to pass to and from the
false trachete, but do not allow fluids to pass into them, a fact I
have demonstrated by feeding flies with coloured syrup.

During the life of the fly, the lips of the proboscis are not usually
opened to more than two-thirds of their extent ; this is effected by
the muscles attached to the thin extremities of the maxillee, which
are then drawn at right angles to the remainder of the maxillary lobe,
(the combined inner surfaces of the lips, in this position, form an
oval sucker, reminding one somewhat of the sucker of Kemora,) com-
municating through the fissure between the lips, with a cavity (labial
cavity) bounded behind by the triangular opening of the labial tube,
and in front by the remaining third of the lips. The false tracheae
open directly into this cavity, and are so connected with the labial
tube, and through it with the whole air system of the insect. If
the lips be examined by the aid of a Leiberkuhn in the living fly,
whilst sucking in a live box, which may easily be accomplished by
moistening the thin glass with a very small quantity of syrup, and
allowing it to dry, it will be seen that the sucker formed by the com-
bined lips is closely applied to the glass at its edges. That the fluid
previously poured by the insect upon the sugar is drawn into the
sucker by the exhaustion of the air through the false tracheal
tubes, seems most probable, from their connection with the tracheal
system.

Any one may convince himself that the readiest manner of ex-
tracting the sweet fluid from moistened sugar is by drawing air
through it ; so we see Nature has provided these insects with a
special organ for overcoming capillary attraction, by calling in the
aid of atmospheric pressure. I think it is probable that the ceso-

B. T. LOWNE ON THE PROBOSCIS OF THE FLY. 131

phagcal tube acts as a valve, closing the opening in the labium, by
which the labial tube communicates with the large tracheal duct,
before mentioned, for although this has not been demonstrated by me,
its form and position would enable it to act in that manner, and if such
be the case, the labial cavity and tube, as well as the cavity of the
sucker, would continue to draw in fluid as long as the valve re-
mained closed, a single exhaustive effort on the part of the insect
enabling it to maintain suctorial power for some seconds.

A kind of rhythmic muscular action of the lips assists the ascent
of the fluid into the labial tube, from which it is drawn by the
open corneous oesophageal tube.

Gleichen long ago noticed the copious escape of air from the
opening between the lips of the fly's proboscis, when the body of the
insect is subjected to pressure ; he supposed that its purpose was the
inflation of the whole organ, which he considered as an erectile one.
It is a curious coincidence, that I thought the same thing myself
when I commenced the investigation of the subject, substituting a
fluid for a gaseous agent, and expected for a long time that I should
discover a special contractile sac for effecting this. I can confi-
dently state now, however, that nothing of the kind happens, and
that the exsertion of the proboscis is entirely a muscular act.

"Within the labial cavity, and inserted into the triangular opening
of the labial tube, are two rows of rods, bidentate at their ex-
tremities. I had never been able to make out their import,
until Mr. Suffolk informed me that he has examined sugar on
which flies had been feeding, and that it was striated with lines
which, when measured by a micrometer, corresponded exactly to the
distance between these teeth. I have never observed this myself,
but can account for not having done so, as I have always used
young flies, which are plentifully supplied with fluid in their abdo-
minal crops with which they melt the sugar ; in these the labial
teeth are comparatively soft. I can quite understand that when
the abdomen is heavy with the developed ovaries, or testes, that the
abdominal stomachs are comparatively reduced, then the labial
teeth, hardened, like all the chitinous structures, by age, would
afford powerful auxiliaries to the solvent action of the saliva.
They would be brought into play by the opening of the fissure
between the lips, for which a special muscle is found on either
side.

Another set of organs is found upon the inner surface of the

132 B. T. LOWNE OX THE PROBOSCIS OP THE FLY.

lips ; — minute papillae, disposed in rows of from two to four, one row
being placed between each pair of false tracbete ; these are exactly
similar to those described by Dr. Braxton Hicks in the " Linnean
Transactions," as existing on the palpi, about the halteres of flies, and
in other parts of insects — only much larger. I have foimd a consider-
able number of precisely similar papillae just within the vulva of the
female fly. They are undoubtedly organs of sensation, and although
I have not succeeded in tracing their nerve supply at present, I do
not despair of doing so.

In Mr. Topping's beautiful preparation of the fly's proboscis —
which I have always looked upon as a marvellous success — it will
be seen that the chitinous envelope is perforated for the passage of
these organs. I thought at first they might be ducts, and that the
interior of each lip contained a gland ; such could, however, hardly
be the case, for its internal supply of air is effected by a minute
branch, from the trunk supplying the maxillary muscles, which, on
entering the lip, divides, half running forwards and half backwards,
and gives off a few exceedingly minute filaments, a supply of air
not at all adequate to a secreting structure.

The interior of the lips seems to be occupied by a few longitudinal
muscular fibres, and by a network of fibrous tissue, which supports
the false trachese from behind ; this is best seen by inflating the lips,
when it gives the interior of the organ the appearance of erectile
tissue ; — during life, the lips are never inflated in this manner.

133

THE EXCUESIOXS OF THE PAST YEAR.

The endeavours of the Qiiekett Club to profit by the experience of
field Clubs, and to establish a series of excursions in the neighbourhood
of the metropolis, for the purpose of collecting objects of micros-
copic interest, appear to have met with considerable success. Some
exceedingly pleasant meetings have taken place. A large number
of specimens have been collected, and members desirous of study-
ing natural objects in their own habitats have learned much. It is
probable that if a record were kept of species, with the locality in
which they were found, time of year, and any other particulars of
interest, some important facts might be discovered. Although new
species might not have to be recorded some rare ones might be
obtained, and others thought to be rare and local might be shown
to be more widely distributed. Comparative abundance or scarcity
in different years, or at different times of the year, might also be
noticed, and would prove not unimportant data for future consi-
deration. Alteration in climate or condition of the soil, as affected
by drainage and other circumstances, would be observed in their
effects on the delicate organisms which are known to us through
the microscope.

With the view of registering these facts for future reference, we
propose from time to time to insert lists of species, and localities
established for them at these excursions. It would also materially
assist our object if individual collectors would also make notes of
their observations, and forward them to us for incorporation in our
lists.

Species Collected, with their Localities.

April 4, 18G8. Hampstead Ponds.
Day mild, genial, and stinny.

Conocliilus volvox (abundant)
Volvox globator (ditto)
Wicrasterias rotata
Euastrum oblongum
Closterium lunula

turgidum

striolatum

acerosum

Cosmarium margaritiferum
Pandorina Morum
ColeochEete scutata

Chfetonotus larus (abundant)
Actinopbrys sol
Rotifer vulgaris
H3dra viridis
Stentor Mulleri
Epistylis anastatica
Carchesium polj-pinum
Melicerta riugens
Floscularia ornata (abundant)
Various larvre and the common
entomostraca in abundance

134 EXCURSIONS OF THE PAST YEAR.

Dr. Ramsbotham sends us the following : —

" A Volvox glohator becoming partially entangled amongst some
confervte, I bad an opportunity of observing that which I had never
seen before, viz., that the young organisms within the parent globe,
on moving in various directions, propelled some of the minute
green spots beyond the circumference of the sphere; they were again
attracted and again repelled, when by an apparently stronger push
one or two were entirely separated, and sent afloat, gradually dis-
appearing from view."

Mr. Ward remarks : —

" One Volvox of about -^ in. diameter contained six smaller ones
each about -^ in. There was an aperture in the parent cell-wall
through which I saw four of the six escape in quick succession.
Each one took some few seconds to get through, as the opening
seemed exactly as large as the spheres, and as soon as the way was
clear another presented itself at once. The two last, though
revolving freely, never made an attempt to pass through whilst I
watched them. A second Volvox, of larger size, but with smaller
internal globes, contained a foreign body (from the outline I thought
a dead rotifer). With a high power I could distinctly focus front
of cell-wall, then this body, and lastly back of cell. I could detect
no aperture, howeyer, in the cell."

In addition to the foregoing list of aquatic organisms Dr.
Braithwaite collected the following mosses and hepaticse, dried
specimens of which he has presented to the Club : —

Sphagnum cymbifolium

acutifolium

Pleuridium subulatum
Dicranella heteromalla
Dicranum scoparium
Pottia truncata
Ceratodon purpureus
Barbula muralis
Funaria hygrometrica
Webera nutans
Bryum capillare

argenteum

Atrichum undulatum
Polytrichum commune

Polytrichum piliferum
Brachythecium albicans

'- velutiuum

rutabulum

Eurhynchium prajlongum
Hypnum cuspidatum

stramineum

fluitans

cupressiforme

Jungermannia albicans

inflata

divaricata

Lophocolea bideutata

heterophylla

April 18. Barnes Common.

Various larva? and entomostraca were collected from the large
ponds. In small pools behind the Cemetery were found Conochilus

EXCUESIONS OF THE PAST YEAR. 135

volvox, sparingly ; Volvox globator, fine and abundant ; jfEcidium
Eanunculacearum\iSi,s found in Eoehampton Lane.

The mosses collected by Dr. Braithwaite, specimens of wbich have
been presented to tbe club, were as follows : —

Pleuridium subulatum
Weissia cirrhata
Physcomitrium pyriformo
Webera nutans
Bryum csespiticium
Aulacomnium palustre
Philonotis fontana
Polytrichum commune
juniperinum

Pogonatum aloides
Hypnum cuspidatum

illecebrum

purum

Lophocolea bidentata

heterophylla

Jungermannia bicuspidata
Pellia epipbylla
Eadula complanata

In a ditcb running eastward from tbe large pond Vorticella
microstoma was found in great abundance, adhering to Anacharis
in gelatinous masses ; also Ophrydium versatile, embedded in a
globular gelatinous cyst of a pale green colour, measuring from one
to two inches in diameter, and swimming freely. Each ophrydia is
stated to be from -j-i-g- in. to -j-^ in. in length, so that a cubic inch
would contain eight millions. The entire mass is sometimes as
large as a man's fist.*

May 16. Chiselhurst.

By kind permission of Mr. Wollaston much time was spent in
riewing his beautiful garden, containing several himdred varieties of
ferns, ^cidium viola, Melicerta ringens, and Volvox globator were
obtained from the ponds.

May 30. High Beech.

In consequence of the heat all the pools were dried, and nothing
"was collected but Chara translucens and another unnamed species
of Chara, supposed to be new.

JUNE 13. NORTHFLEET.

The most interesting object obtained on this occasion was the j9Esop
shrimp, Pandalus annulicornis in its larval state. It was found in
some quantity in one of the ditches near the railway station.

* See Micrograpkic Dictionary.

136

EXCURSIONS OB' THE PAST YEAR.

"We are indebted to Mr. Sirason for the following list of diatoms,
found in these marshes. He remarks — " I feel confident that I
shall ultimately be able to record at least 50 species from this pro-
lific locality."

Bacillaria paradoxa
Achnanthes brevipea
Actinocyclus undulatus
Amphiprora alata
Biddulphia aurita
Cocconeis scutellum
Coscinodiscus eccentricus

lineatus

Melosira nummuloides
Navicula Amphisb^na

— didyma

punctulata

Smithii

Nitzscbia dubia

siarma

Pleurosigma acuminatum

angulatum

Pleurosigma attenuatum

Balticum

delicatum

fasciola

Hippocampus

littorale

quadratum

scalprum

Grevillii

Surirella Brigbtwellii

gemma

ovata

striatula

Synedra tabulata
Tryblionella acuminata
marginata

July 4. Keston Common.

Batrachospermum moniliforme, and a few desmids were found.
The bogs were very nearly dried up.

July 18. Esher.

Very little of microscopical interest was found at this excursion,
owing to the very dry weather. Mr. Reeves gathered Senebiera
didyma and Pilularia globulifera on the common.

August 1. Hampton Court.

Cristatella mucedo
Limnias ceratophylli
(Ecistes crystal linus
Lacinularia sociaiis
Carchesium polypinum
Zootbamium arbuscula
Stentor polymorpbus

Actinophrys Sol

■ Eicbornii

Antbopbysa MuUeri
Difflugia ?

Spongilla lacustris
Hydrodictyon utriculatum

August 15. Higham.

Mr. Simson found some diatoms in a state of conjugation, but
unfortunately was unable to name the species. It is mentioned here
to induce others to look for them again next year. ■

EXCURSIONS OF THE PAST YEAR.

137

Mr. Reeves gathered the beautiful Flowering Rush Butomus
umbellatus.

August 29. Totteridge.
The ponds were quite dry.

September 12. Victoria Docks.

At this excursion, Mr. W. S. Kent had the good fortune to find
a Zoophyte and one of the Nudibranchiate Mollusca, both of which,
we believe, will prove to be new to the British Fauna. The follow-
ing were likewise found : —

Pandalus annulicomis
Mysis vulgaris
Piaptomus rubens
Plumatella repeas
Acineta tuberosa
Floscularia ornata
Vaginicola crystallina
Cothurnia imberbis

Epistylis anastatica
Cordylophora lacustris
Bacillaria paradoxa
Gromia oviformis
Stentor polymorphus
Actiaophrys Sol
Euplotus aculeatus
Carchesium polypinum, &c., &c.

September 26. Hampstead.

Plumatella repens
Limnias cfiratophylli

Floscularia ornata
&;c., kG.

W. J. L. ARNOLD,
F. W. GAY,
W. W. REEVES,
W. T. SUFFOLK,

Members of Excursion
Committee.

L 2

138

Microscopical Objects in the Potash Salts of Stassfurt.
Communicated by Herr Weissflog.

If the red Carnallit of Stassfurt be dissolved in water, there
remains a bulky residuum (amounting, however, only to 0-075 per
cent, of the whole) which, treated chemically, is found to consist of
the following ingredients, viz. : —

94-5 per cent, of oxide of iron.

0"4 ,, alumina.

1'9 „ silica.

3-2 „ matter destructible in a red heat.

Of this last 2-3 parts are soluble in alcohol.

When heated to redness this residuum emits an empyreumatic
odour, and assumes a black metallic hue, which, during the process
of cooling, passes again to red, and in consequence of its conver-
sion into black oxide becomes slightly magnetic. The Carnallit
from Maman, in Persia, behaves in a similar manner.

On placingthis residuum under the microscope there is seen such
beauty of form and gorgeousness of colouring as are scarcely to be
found, even in Aventurine. Magnificent crystals develope them-
selves, interwoven with which are spongelike fibrous organic re-
mains. Much has already been written about these microscopic
structures, and attention has been drawn to them by descriptions
and figures — A. Goebel, Melanges physiques et chimiques de
I'Acad., de S. Petersbourg, vi., 413 ; T. Tritsche in the same,
463; F. Bischoff, the Eock Salt Works of Stassfurt, 31; T.
Cohn in Schultze's Archiv. fiir Microscopische Anatomic, Bonn, '
1867, p. 4. — but neither description nor figure can give the same
marvellous impression as is conveyed by the microscope.

First there meets the eye six-sided rhombic plates of peroxide
of iron, of a yellow hue, but passing through every gradation of
colouring into deep blood red. These plates gradually thin out
into elongated bars, or rods, which, even under the highest
powers, reach a magnitude of at most nr.-oinr P^^'* ^f a line, and
which traverse the entire texture in every direction. At one time
they were supposed to be the remains of an a]ga (Hygrocrocis)^ but
there is no doubt of their being of the same nature as the crystals,
for they remain of the same colour and shape when exposed to a

MICROSCOPICAL OBJECTS IN THE POTASH SALTS. 139

red heat, except tliat during tlic operation tliey assume a black
hue. In addition to these forms are to be seen certain yellow
crystals, of glassy clearness and of remarkable beauty ; the nature
of -which has never yet been satisfactorily made out. Their
principal constituent is likewise oxide of iron — at an earlier
period they were called chrysolites — nevertheless, they have
nothing in common with peroxide of iron, for both their shape and
colour are changed when heated to redness. The larger crystals
are precipitated when the Carnallit is held in solution ; the smaller
float on the surface. In the interior are to be seen peculiar
markings, as though organisms were enclosed in them.

Now let that portion of the residuum which is insoluble in
water be further treated with acids ; it also is dissolved by re-
peated boiling, leaving only a small residual mass. It con-
tains for the most part quartz crystals, remarkable for the
perfection of their form and the beautiful manner in which
they polarise. More rarely pyrites is discovered ; at least, the
smaller crystals correspond with it in colour and appearance.
Still more rarely are seen lovely, colourless, highly refractive
octahedra, reminding one of diamonds ; but a long-continued
treatment with acids proves them to be not insoluble. G, C.
Kindt, of Bremen, who has done so much for the microscopic
world of Stassfurt, is convinced that they are referable to boracite.

Besides these crystalline forms, a fibrous texture is met with,
closely interwoven with the crystals themselves, the origin of
which is undoubtedly organic. This fibrous matter is best ob-
tained by repeated washing of the flakes, which ascend to the
surface while the Carnallit is being dissolved.

I have already spoken of the delicate matted threads which
were at one time assigned to the genus Hygroci^ocis, but which
appear to be identical with peroxide of iron. In this spongelike,
membranous mass are scattered here and there elongated, cylin-
drical, partially branched filaments, of a white colour, and furnished
with distinct cells — a circumstance which is infallible evidence of
their organic origin.

The Rock Salt Formation of Wicliczka, referred to the Miocene
period, has, as is well known, a fossil fauna of its own — mollusca,
foraminifera, and ostracoda. These creatures were enabled to carry
on life, because the alkaline salts were periodically washed away by
fresh water, and on the whole the saline constituents of the element

140 MICROSCOPICAL OBJECTS IN THE POTASH SALTS.

in which they lived were never raised to too high a standard. But in
the Salt Lake of Stassfurt, which is always filled with a far more
highly concentrated solution, the existence of animal life was impossi-
ble ; though, at the same time, the conditions were not unfavourable to
the development of vegetable life. The definition of these vegetable
forms is, however, still an open question. In G. C. Kindt's opinion,
they appear to agree best with sphagnum ; Karsten, of Berlin, is
inclined to class them with cycads ; Schimper, of Strasburg, with
oscillatora3. One thing is certain, that when the peroxide of iron
is heated to redness, an empyreumatic odour is given out, on which
Goebel lays great stress, as a property belonging to algas and
sponges, and which originates in the 3-2 per centage of matter,
mentioned at the commencement of this paper as being destructible
by fire.

141

NOVELTIES.

Type Slides. — At the meeting of the Quekett Club, on June
26th last, Mr. M. C. Cooke exhibited a very remarkable collection of
diatoms he had just received from J, D. Moller, of Wedel, in Hol-
stein; they were in number about 400, and were mounted on one slide,
called by the preparer a " Typen-platte," and were accompanied
by a key or catalogue. There was but little time to examine
and appreciate this extraordinary production then, and not much
information could be obtained about it in consequence, except
that similar slides might be obtained for about £3 each.

Since then, Mr. Curties has jDlaced one of these " Type-slides "
in our hands for examination, and the impression produced is that
our German fellow microscopists are very far advanced in manipu-
lation. The slide is a most exquisite specimen of microscopic skill,
and better still, it forms a most useful typical collection of diatom-
acese.

The slide we have examined contains 403 specimens and 387
distinct species ; these are mounted in balsam in a circular, glass
cell, covered by a disc, the first measuring .010, and the last .006 of
an English inch in thickness. It would appear from the uniformity
of focus that the diatoms are placed on the inner side of the
covering glass. A -j^^th objective of large angular aperture can
easily be used upon them. Fine specimens of EujJodiscus Argus
are placed as marks to indicate the commencement of lines. The
slide is accompanied by a written catalogue, neatly bound, in
which all the specimens are entered, and numbered in their proper
order. They are arranged as follows : —

Epithemiese,

M eridioneje,

Diatomese,

Tabellarie^,

Surirelleffi,

Nitzschiffi,

Amphipleurese,

Cocconeide^,

AchnantheEe,

CymbellesB,

Gomph onomese,

NaviculaceEe.

Isthmeae,

Biddulphiaceae,

Eupodiscese,

Milosirese,

Chaelocerese.

By slowly passing the slide across the field each specimen is

142

N0VELTIE8.

brougM into view in succession, and can'thus be named from the
written catalogue.

M. MoUer also prepares a test slide, containing twenty examples
of diatoms, arranged in a straight line, and similarly mounted to
the one described.

The idea of type slides is evidently a very good and useful one.
It would be far more convenient if typical specimens could thus be
mounted for reference, instead of being compelled to keep a sepa-
rate slide for each.

Immersion Lenses. — The method of examining objects with
the aid of a drop of fluid placed between the anterior combination
of the objective, and the glass cover of the slide, has hitherto
found more favour with continental microscopists than those of our
own country. Foreign opticians have carried out the principle most
successfully, and we have seen some excellent results produced by
object glasses on this principle, costing comparatively a low price.
Recently, however, Messrs. Powell and Lealand have turned
their attention to the subject, and have succeeded in their efforts ;
we have had an opportunity of testing the arrangement with a
-^ objective, and have found the power of definition of the latter much
increased. The test object was Navicula rhomboides, — and a very
delicate specimen of it, which has always required some trouble to re-
solve. It was first viewed by the ^th in question, in the ordinary way,
and the two sets of markings were just made out; the new adjust-
ment was then added, a drop of fluid placed on the front lens, and
the illumination and object left untouched. When brought into
focus the lines became distinct and unmistakable dots.

It will be observed that the original form of the object glass re-
mains unchanged. The new system involves the addition of
a front lens, which is removed when the object has to be examined
in the ordinary manner.

New Pseudo-Binocular Prism. — At the October meeting,
Mr. Henry Crouch, of 54, London "Wall, exhibited a modifi-
cation of Wenham's prism, which, by a slight alteration of adjust-
ment, presents a pseudoscopic, or inverted image. As is well
known, an ordinary Wenham prism has four surfaces, the relative
position of the two reflecting surfaces determining the angle of
the emergent ray. The base, as ordinarily mounted, occupies half
the field; the left half of the cone of rays being transmitted

NOVELTIES.

143

direct to the right eye, the right half being collected by the
prism and refracted to the left eye.

The Pseudo-Binocular Prism has, however, five surfaces, (the
emergent surface being also made twice the ordinary width). Be-
yond the usual base, another surface is added, ground parallel with the
emergent surface, thus allowing light to pass directly through the
prism at this point. As a binocular, the prism would be used in
the usual manner, the ordinary base occupying the right half of
the field, and refracting the collected rays to the left eye. By
pushing the prism in so that it occupies the whole of the field, its
action is reversed, the left half of the rays being refracted to the
left eye ; the right half passing through the parallel surfaces of
prism to the right eye, the effect being to instantaneously invert the
imao-e, a convex surface presenting a concave appearance and vice
versa. This ingenious modification of Mr. Wenham's prism is the
invention of Mr. Ahrens ; its construction does not in any way
affect the performance of the instrument as an ordinary binocular,
at the same time illustrating one of the most curious optical phe-
nomena.

New Syphon Collecting Bottle, with Dipping Case. — We
are indebted to Mr. George for another collecting bottle, which he
has named as above, and of which we give a cut. It consists of a

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

bottle. A, fig. 1, stopped by a plug, B, over which is'stretched a ring
of India-rubber, and into which is soldered the funnel, C, and the
sy|Dhontube, E, to which is attached the strainer, D ; F is a flexible
tube, with a plug attached, to be turned over to stop the mouth of

144 NOVELTIES.

the pipe of the funnel when not in use. A, fig. 2, is a case to
contain the bottle, and to be used for dipping ; B is a handle play-
ing on a joint, E, and falling close to body of case, A ; C is an
India-rubber ring to receive -walking stick or umbrella, the point of
which is thrust down to the body of the case, and fastened with
twine ; D is a loose cover to fit the case.

Note on Lncernaria auricula. — In order to gather a little
strength, it was my good fortune a few weeks since to visit Cromer,
on the coast of Norfolk. It is impossible, I think, to find a more
lovely spot upon the coast — to those at least who love retirement,
and who take the precaution of making their microscope a travell-
ing companion, as I rejoice to say was my own case.

Without claiming any particular novelty, the shore afforded me
on this occasion unusual enjoyment ; besides various Leprarias, I
found and developed the Polypes of Cellepora Cycloum, Sarco-
chitum, Eudendrium, &c., and if we could have extended our visit
a little longer, I have no doubt we should have considerably added
to the list, for the tide was beginning to wash in a larger supply ;
we left, however, towards the end of September.

The particular circumstance to which I beg your attention was
a personal observation made upon Lucernaria Auricula. Johnston
says it is found on the " Coast of Devonshire" and different parts of
the coast, and as Cromer faces due north, I suppose it is not un-
common, although quite new to me.

We found four specimens. Three of them had been rolled by
the tide, and were almost lifeless when taken, and soon died ; but
the fourth was taken in full vigour at low water, on the grass-like
conferva frequently found upon the rocks and stones. This was
on the 21st of September.

W e had spent with our friends a considerable time in viewing
its curious tuft of suckers, &c., but it was almost by accident
rather late in the evening of the 22nd of Sept., that I felt inclined
to take another look at it. The first thing which struck my atten-
tion was rather a slow motion in opposite directions in the globules
or ova in one of the tubes. At first it appeared to be a circulation
not very unlike the gentle motion seen in Nitella ; but the size of

NOTE ON LUCERNARIA AURICULA. 145

• the globules and the structure of the zoophyte at once proved that
it could not be a circulation in the usual sense of the term. Pre-
sently it changed to a very tumultuous action, and almost immedi-
ately an immense discharge of ova or globules took place from the
centre of the tuft, spreading themselves like an expanding cloud of
smoke. Any attempt to count them would have been quite impos-
sible — the animal must have discharged many hundreds ; they
flowed forth in a continual stream for about half an hour, and then
gradually subsided.

But this was not all. Towards the end of the discharge of ova, I
observed a vast number of monad-looking bodies swimming about
in all directions with great activity, touching the ova from time to
time, and even resting on many of them which had settled on the
green conferva, to which the Lucernaria was attached in the trough.
I was using Powell and Lealand's 2-inch objective and binocular.
On applying the two-third's objective, (the highest power which I
could bring to bear upon the object, and then only when they
rested on the edge of the trough,) these monad-like creatures were
developed into ob-ovate bodies, evidently surrounded with cilia.

My own impression is, they were male spawn or spermatazoa,
and their object the fertilization of the ova. I have never read of,
or seen, that I remember, a similar occurrence, and shall be glad
if your readers will correct me if I am wrong. The whole observa-
tion was more curious and interesting than I can express. I can
only compare the action of these moving bodies to a swarm of bees
in their hour of jubilee on occasion of the election of a new-made
Queen. It was quite by accident that I was so fortunate. It did
not last much more than half an hour from beginning to end ; and
if the spawning usually takes place after darkness has set in, as in
this case, the opportunity of observing it would, of course, be very
rare.

The Lucernaria in this respect seems to differ altogether from
the Actinia ; for when several years since I kept a Marine Aquar-
ium, I saw the Actinia discharge their young from the mouth in a
viviparous state. Rev. J. Fry, Monson Villa, Redhill.

146

QUEKETT MICEOSCOPICAL CLUB.

SEPTEMBER 25th, 18G8.
Arthur E. Durham, Es:^., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The President announced that it was proposed to hold extra meetings during
the months of November, December, January, February, and March, for the
especial purpose of exhibiting objects, and for conversation. The evening
would probably be the second Friday in the month, but final arrangements would
be announced at the next meeting He also announced that Mr. Suffolk proposed
to form a class for Microscopic manipulation, particulars of which might be
obtained of him.

The Secretary read the following list of donations :—

" Land and Water," from the Editor ; " Science Gossip," from the publisher ;
"Naturalists' Circular," from the Editor; "The Transactions of the Bristol
Natural History Society," from the Society ; two slides from Mr. Curties.

The following names of gentlemen were announced as candidates for member-
ship : — W. A. Bevington, Thomas Brabham, C. R. N. Burrows, Thomas Greenish,
Henry Eichard Gregory, E. H. Hughes, B.A., Jesus Coll. Camb., Samuel
Knevett, William Smart.

The ballot was then taken for four gentlemen proposed as members at the
last meeting. These gentlemen were subsequently declared duly elected.

The following objects were exhibited among others: — Mosquitoes from Calcutta,
collected 40 years ago by Dr. Eamsbotham ; Tubuli of crab shell, by Mr.
Breese; Mouth of English mosquito, shewing lancets ; and Cordylophora lacustris
from the Victoria Docks.

Mr.M. C. Cooke called attention to a preparation of the gill of the Sword fish,
duplicates of which he had for exchange.

Mr. Slade then read a paper " On the preparation of sections of Tooth and
Bone for Microscopic examination."

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. Slade.

Mr. Frederick Durham asked if any one had any experience in the method of
preparing teeth by first breaking them in small pieces and then soaking them
in glycerine, recommended by Dr. Beale.

Mr. Sufi'olk observed that Dr. Beale recommended acidulated glycerine, which
had the effect of dissolving the calcareous portion, leaving the animal matter
only. Dr. Carpenter had remarked that glycerine dissolved carbonate of lime,
some of his preparations having been spoiled in consequence of this action upon
them. He could confirm this as some of his ovni objects had been injured by
the glycerine in which they were mounted.

The President made some remarks of which Mr. Slade has furnished a note at
page 119.

It having been announced that at the next meeting a paper would be read by
Mr. Tatem " On Melicerta Eingens,' the meeting concluded with a conver-
sazione.

147

OCTOBER 23rd, 18G8.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

In the absence of tlie Honorary Secretary, Mr. M. C. Cooke road the minutes
of the preceding meeting, which were approved.

The following donations were announced : —

" Science Gossip," and the " Popular Science Eeview," from tho publisher {
" The Transactions of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the Society;
a paper on " Diatomaceas," from Dr. Edwards ; "The Naturalists' Circular,"
from the publisher; one slide from Mr. Groves; six slides of mosquitoes from
Mr. Edwards; twelve slides from Mr. Thomas Russell; and one hundred slides
from Mr. M. C. Cooke.

The thanks of the meeting were returned to the respective donors.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership :— William Adkins,
James Boustead, W. Delferier, F.R.M.S., Eev. R. C. Douglas, Thomas Parker,
Benjamin Pritchett.

The names of eight gentlemen proposed at the last meeting were then balloted
for and subsequently declared duly elected.

Among the objects exhibited were, — Cypris monarcha and other Entomostraca,
by Mr. Curties ; Foot of hornet as a polariscope object, by Mr. J. W. Groves ;
Circulation in the heart of a water ^ea, by Mr. Martinelli ; living specimens of
Foramenifera and Marine Polyzoa from Dover, by Mr. Hainworth ; living Desmida
and Diatoms from Kilburn, by Mr. Beckett; andMysis vulgaris, by Mr. Gay.

The President gave notice that at the next meeting it would be proposed that
any members desirous of compounding for their future annual payments might
do so on payment of £10, all such compounding fees to be invested at the dis-
cretion of the Committee, so as to form a x)ermanent fund.

Mr. S. J. M'Intire then read a paper on Cheyleti.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. M'Intire.

Mr. George exhibited and described a new syphon collecting bottle. See
page 143.

Mr. T. C. Wliite read the following note on a new cement for Microscopical
purposes : —

" Among the many genial characteristics of the Quekett Microscopical Club
none stand more prominent than the warm and ready reception given to any
suggestion thrown out by its individual members for the common benefit of the
work of the Society ; it is with this conviction that I am induced to call your
attention to an agent hitherto little employed in the mounting of objects for the
Microscope.

"It is a very desirable thing to have an agent by which an object
may be quickly put up and placed away out of danger of dust and damage.
This I find in the solution of Gum Dammar in Benzole, a few bottles of which
I have placed on the table for distribution. The gum can be procured at a very
cheap rate at most varnish makers and it dissolves readily in Benzole. The solution
forms a very sticky cement and can be used wherever gold size is usually em-
ployed, but with the advantage that it dries instantaneously. I find it very useful
in mounting thin objects in fluid, and the plan I adopt is as follows:— I run a ring
of the Gum Dammar cement on my slide with the turntable, then put the preser-
vative fluid in the ring with the object in, press down the covering glass, thug
squeezing out the superfluous fluid, the glass sticks firmly in spite of the
moisture, no air-bubbles run in, and after drying it off with blotting paper I run
a second ring round and put it away. Such slides I have had for upwards of two

148

years and they show no change in the cells, no milkiness, no air-bubbles, and
the cement remains firm. Feeling convinced that its use is attended with so
many great advantages I thought I should be acting the part of a churl if I kept
back its knowledge from the Society any longer."

The communication was accompanied by some bottles of the cement for distri-
bution.

The thanks of the meeting were voted to Mr. White.

Referring to Lis large donation of slides to the cabinet of the Club, Mr. Cooke
remarked that their value chiefly consisted in their being carefully named, and
therefore constituting an authority to which members might refer for the identi-
fication of specimens. Mr. Cooke also intimated his willingness to deliver a
course of lectures on Microscopic Fungi if not less than 15 gentlemen would send
in their names as desirous of forming a class for the purpose.

Mr. W. T. Suffolk also stated his intention to re-commence his classes for in-
struction in Microscopical Manipulation Gentlemen desirous of attending were
requested to give early notice of their intention to Mr. Johnson ; not more than
15 members were required, and those who had attended the previous courses were
requested to volunteer as assistants. Members were also requested to bring
with them their own microscopes, which should not be inferior toMessrs. Smith
and Beck's five-guinea instrument.

The President having reminded members of their subscriptions, aonounced
that a paper " On Melicerta Ringens," byMr. Tatem, would be read at the next
meeting, and that a paper " On British Graptolites" had been promised by Mr.
John Hopkinson.

The meeting terminated with the usual conversazione.

NOVEMBER 27th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

In accordance with the notice given at the preceding meeting, the President
declared the meeting a special one for considering the following addition to the
Bye Laws, — " That any member desirous of compounding for his future sub-
scriptions may do so at any time by payment of the sum of £10 ; all such sums
to be duly invested in such manner as the committee shall think fit.''

The resolution that the above should form part of the Bye Laws being put
from the chair, was carried.

The following donations were announced : —

"Transactions of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the Society j
" Science Gossip," from the Publisher ; the "Naturalists' Circular;" from the
Editor ; "Land and Water,'' from the Editor ; Six slides of American mus-
quitoes and their eggs, from Dr. Purley, of Portland, Maine, U.S.A. ; 160
slides from Mr. Cooke ; one slide of Halodactylus and one of Sertularia, from
Mr C. Collins ; four slides of varieties of Crystals of Santonine, from Mr.
Hislop ; one slide of Aventurine, from Mr. G. E. Quick ; and four slides of
selected Pleurosigmas, from Dr. Dempsey.

The thanks of the members were voted to the donors.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — John Ashby, W.
E. Coe, Samuel Eyre, Robert J. Farmer, James B. Jordan, Henry Lloyd, Ben-
jamin Thompson Lowne, M.R.C.S., Richard Mestayer, F.R.M.S,, George Mun-
dil, M,R.C.S., Thomas Nicholson, Ph. D., F.G.S., C. A. Redl, William Scantle-
bury, D. Sowerby, James Swift, Arthur Waller, F.R.M.S., Alfred Warner.

149

The six gentlemen proposed at tlie previous meeting were then ballotted for,
and declared duh' elected.

The Secretary informed the members that a Microscopical Society on a similar
basis to their own was being formed at Liverpool. He read the circular announc-
ing the plan of the proposed Society, which he had received from a gentleman who
had previously asked for information as to the working of the Club. He had
subsequently heard that a preliminary meeting had been held, at which 58
members were enrolled.

The following objects for exhibition were announced: — Falces of Garden
Spider, by Mr. Martinelli ; Antennae of Japanese Silk^vorm, by Mr. Golding ;
Tongue of a Fly, mounted in fluid, by Mr. Hainworth; Selected Diatoms, by
Dr. Dempseyand Mr. Hislop.

Mr. Curties then read a paper by Mr. Tatem, " On a new Melicertian and on
Melicerta Ringens." The paper was illustrated by coloured drawings. See
page 124.
The thanks of the members were voted to Messrs. Tatem and Curties.
After the reading of Mr. Tatem's paper, Mr. Heury Davis alluded to Mr.
Tatem's reference to a paper read by him some two years ago before the
Royal Microscopical Society, which he had unintentionally misquoted in that
portion relating to (Ecistes longicornis. A glance at the copy of the paper on
the table would show that no such resemblance to Limnias was noted by him.
Mr. Tatem's error might be accounted ;.for by the fact that before describing
(E. longicornis, he had given a short account of another rotifer, and noted
the resemblance of that— and that only— to liimnias. The new rotifer (Lim-
nioides myriopliilli) just described, he had very often seen, and considered a
variety of Limnias ceratophylli ; it might perhaps be well to register it as a
new species, but there appeared no warrant for establishing a new genus for its
reception. It resembled Limiiias ceratoithylli in every important particular ;
had the same bilobed rotary organs, same sheath and same gizzard ; the only
difference was in the mounting of the tactile sets, these in Limnias being on
two tubercles— one on each side of the neck ; while in the new rotifer they
were placed at the free ends of short processes, exactly like the antennae in
Melicerta. He was assuming that the creatures he had seen were the same as
those Mr. Tatem described and figured,

(In reference to the above remarks, Mr. Tatem writes as follows: — "Mr.
Davis is certainly in error in supposing that I make any confusion between his
two species (Ecistes longicornis and (E. intermedius. To the latter I do not
refer at all. Taking it to be merely a variety of Limnias, it was not necessary
to my purpose, that of suggesting the establishment of a new genus for the
artificial arrangement of Tubicola3 with two syphons and two lobes, and ex-
pressing an opinion, well or ill-founded as it may be, of a community of origin
amongst them as illustrated by varieties of Melicerta.")

Mr. Lowne read a paper on " The Proboscis of the Blow Fly," illustrated by
coloured drawings. See page 126.

A cordial vote of thanks was awarded to Mr. Lowne for his paper.

Mr. Suffolk congratulated Mr. Lowne upon his having cleared up the uncer-
tainty which had enveloped this subject for the last 80 years. With one or two
exceptions, the writers during that period appeared to have followed descrip-
tions of distorted mounted specimens. He had himself been working at the
subject for a long time, but Mr. Lowue appeared to have had more advantages,
and he congratulated him on his success. At an early meeting of this Society
he had conferred with the late Mr. Richard Beck, and showed him a drawing

150

made in 1853. He had lately applied to Mr. Beck's representatives to know if
he had left anything relating to the matter amongst his papers, and was in-
formed that there was nothing but a very beautiful drawing, dated 186-2. Since
Gleichen's work on the House My, no one seemed to have paid any real atten-
tion to the subject.

The President mentioned that in 1862 Mr. Beck shewed him for the first time
the proboscis of a fly as it ought to be seen, namely, in the living state. It was
placed in a live box, with a little glycerine or honey on the inside of the cover,
and the working of the labia was well displayed.

The President announced that the Committee had arranged for extra meetings
to be held during the winter months for the purposes of manipulation and con-
versation. The Council of University College had very handsomely placed at
their disposal a room on the second Friday evenings in December, January,
February, and March. The hours of meeting to be from 7 to 10.

It was proposed to form a committee of six gentlemen to carry out the plan.
Three had been nominated by the Council— namely, Messrs Gay, Hailes, and
Hislop, and the remaining three were to be then appointed from among the
members,

Messrs. Dobson, Ambrose Smith, and White having been nominated, were
duly elected to serve on the sub-committee for managing the extra meetings.

Mr. Burgess called attention to a new collecting case arranged by Mr. Stanley,
of Great Turnstile.

The President announced that the next meeting would be held on December
18th, as the fourth Friday fell on Christmas day,

A paper was announced by Mr. Hopkinson " On British Graptolites," and one
by Mr. Samuel Holmes " On a new form of Binocular."

The meeting terminated in the usual manner.

EXTRA MEETINGS.

The first of the series of extra meetings for conversation and the exhibi-
tion of objects, was held on Friday, the 11th December, in the Library of
University College (the use of which has been courteously granted by the
Council).

The Committee appointed to superintend these meetings— Messrs. Hislop,
Hailes, Gay, A. Smith, T. C. White, and Dobson — were in attendance at half-
past six o'clock, and made suitable arrangements for the accommodation of
members bringing their instruments.

The following gentlemen exhibited microscopes : —
Mr. Suffolk; Discs in splinter of lucifer match, with 4-lOths, and parabolic

reflector.
Mr. OxLEY; Melicerta, Stephanoceros, &c.

Mr. McLeod ; a numerous collection of mosses and whole insects.
Mr. White; a metliod of crystallizing under the microscope.
Mr. Hailes ; a series of Foraminifera from the Phillipines, drawings, &c.
Mr. GoLDiNG ; various spiculaj.

Mr. Wright ; curious web attachments formed by spiders.

Mr. HiSLOP; crystals of Santonine. Lips of the fly mounted in their natural state.
Mr. Ghay; Floscularia. Mr. Cuhties, Polycistina. Mr. Grove ; Diatomacese.
Mr. Collins; Zoophytes. Dr. Matthews; fenis.

Eighteen microscopes were on the tables, and these, with the books and
objects belonging to the Club, enabled the members (of whom 60 were present),
to spend a pleasant evening, and much practical information was elicited.

THE JOURNAL

OF THE

i^uchett Pur0St0jjual aClxtt^

On British Graptolites. By John Hopkinson, F.R.M.S.
(Read December 18tk, 1868.)

In one of the oldest series of rocks, the Silurian, a peculiar group
of fossil zoophytes, called Graptolites, occurs. Thej are exclu-
sively confined to the Silurian formation, and in its lower division
are frequently unaccompanied by any other fossils. They are by
far the most abundant in the Skiddaw slates and Llandeilo flags,
lessening in number, both of species and individuals, in the Upper
Silurian rocks, until, in the Ludlow, but two species are found.
Their geological range is thus comparatively very limited ; but their
geographical range is world-wide. In Britain, on the Continent,
in America, and in Australia ; in fact, wherever Silurian rocks
occur, graptolites abound.

To what class of zoophytes they belong, whether to the Hydrozoa,
the Actinozoa, or the Polyzoa (Bryozoa), is not easily determined.

Sir Roderick Murchison says, " They are supposed by many
naturalists to have been zoophytes nearly allied to the living Vir-
gularia, a creature known only in deep water. Others rather con-
eider these extinct forms to belong to Sertularian zoophytes, or even
to Polyzoa. Be this as it may, the geologist has observed that
they are found exclusively in the Silurian system of life."

As microscopists, however, we need not enter further into the
geological or geographical range of graptolites, but consider instead,
their structure, history, classification, and affinities.

152 J. HOPKTNSON ON BraTISH GEAPT0LITE8.

§ I. Structure.

Assuming for the present that the Graptolitid£e form a distinct
order of the class Hydrozoa, it seems necessary to explain the
terms proposed for this class hy Dr. Allman and Professor
Huxley, as, though now generally adopted, they are by no means
■widely known.

The body of every Hydrozoon consists of a sac composed of two
membranes, an outer, called the ectoderm, and an inner, the endo-
derm. This entire double-walled body is termed a hydrosome, and
consists in its simplest form, as seen in the fresh water Hydra, of a
disc of attachment, the hydrorhiza; a sac for the digestion of
food, the polypite ; and processes for seizing food, the tentacles.
At certain seasons reproductive organs are developed.

In the majority of the Hydrozoa there are several polypites
organically united by a common connecting fleshy basis, termed the
ccBnosarc, forming, in the Corynidae and Sertulariad^e, the nearest
allies of the Graptolitid®, a branching stem, a transverse section
of which is usually nearly circular.

The growth of every hydrosome takes place from one end, which
does not further develope. This end may be in any position, up-
wards, downwards, or sideways. It is termed the proximal end ; the
other, or growing extremity, being termed the distal end. The
proximal end forms a hydrorhiza, either expanding into a disc, or
sending out radicles, by which it attaches itself to other bodies.

That portion of the hydrosome which intervenes between the
hydrorhiza and the first polypite is termed the hydrocaulus. The
opposite ends of the individual polypites are also termed proximal
and distal; the proximal being attached to the supporting ceenosarc,
and the distal being armed with filiform tentacles.

The individual polypites of many Hydrozoa are protected by
cup-like receptacles, commonly called polype cells, entirely composed
of the cuticular layer of the ectoderm. These are termed hydro-
thecoB.* The ctenosarc also has a protecting covering, tei-med the
periderm ; the whole covering of the soft parts being called the
polypary. The tentacles are never protected by a special covering.

* It may be objected that the word cell or cellule is applicable, and is more
convenient than hydrotheca ; but to a microscopist a cell is the ultimate particle
of Uvinf? tissue, and a cellule is but a little cell.

The word mouth has likewise been used for the aperture or orifice of each
hydrotheca ; but the opening through which the polypite protudes its tentacles,
as well as the distal extremity of its body, cannot certainly be called a mouth !

J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES. 153

Of graptolites nothing is preserved besides the polypary — ^the
cfenosarc, poljpites, and tentacles having perished.

The reproductive organs of the Hydrozoa consist usually of
portions of the ectoderm developed into pouches or sacs, termed
gonopJioi'es. These are always external, generally budding from
the ca^nosarc, to which, or to the protecting periderm, they are at
first attached. In the Sertulariadje these gonophores, or genera-
tive buds, are sometimes developed directly from the caenosarc, and
sometimes from the gonohlastidium, a peduncle, which rises from
caBUOsarc and has a similar structure. The gonophores are some-
times contained in cup-like receptacles, termed gonothecce. The
entire reproductive organs, whatever be their nature or form, are
included under the general term gonosome.

These are bat a few of the terms specially relating to the
Hydrozoa, yet they are more than sufficient for the graptolite.
There is, however, one structure peculiar to the GraptolitidEe, and
that is, a slender solid axis, supporting the hydrosome in every
direction.

We shall now easily understand the structure of the graptolite.*
The proximal end, or initial point, which appears seldom to have
been attached to foreign bodies, consists of a radicle, and is some-
times invested with a corneous disc. The radicle is sometimes long
and slender, sometimes broad and tapering, and sometimes only a
minute point. It seems to be merely the proximal termination of
the solid axis. In many graptolites a short spine is developed on
each side of the radicle, and sometimes, though very rarely, the
radicle itself bifurcates. The corneous disc is only present in some
of the branching forms, uniting the proximal terminations of each
branch. It consists of two membranes, and may have contained a
substance of the same fleshy nature as the cjenosarc. Its purpose
seems to have been to give strength and rigidity to the polypary.

Between the radicle and the first developed hydrothec^, in many
branching forms, a non-polypiferous portion of the periderm inter-
venes. Hall has called it the funicle, but as it is analogous to
the hydrocaulus of recent Hydrozoa, no new term is needed. This
hydrocaulus differs from the rest of the periderm, only in being
composed of a thicker membrane, and containing a smaller centraF
canal.

* All the points of structure and varieties of form here referred to are illus-
trated in Plate VIII.

K 2

154 J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

From the radicle proceeds the solid axis. With reference to the
CEenosarc and pol}^3ites it is dorsal in position,* being placed in a
hollow at the back of the ca^nosarc, and outside the protecting
periderm, from which it is easily separable. In form it is usually
solid and cylindrical ; sometimes it is composed of two thin lamina ;
and in one genus it is cruciform. It gave strength and support to
the whole polypary. It is frequently prolonged beyond it, and has
a similar horny structure.

Attached to the solid axis is the periderm, containing the cylindri-
cal common canal. The cfenosarc which it enclosed has perished.

On the margin of the periderm the hydrothecae are developed. Be-
tween them, and the common canal, there is no constriction or septum,
showing that the individual polypites were immediately developed
from the csenosarc, the whole being organically united ; each in-
dividual polypite contributing, through the csenosarc, to the nourish-
ment of the whole colony.

The entire polypary consists of a flexible horny or chitinous
cuticle, usually, in the process of mineralisation, carbonized, or
metamorphosed into iron pyrites.

The hydrothecfe are more or less in contact throughout their
length, or are entirely separated. When in contact, they usually
form an acute angle with the axis ; when separated, they are often
rectangular to it. In some peculiar forms there are no distinct
hydrothecfe, their orifices being excavated in the margin of the
polypary, which is continuous throughout. The hydrothecae, in
these forms, are in contact for their whole length, and have but a
single wall of division between them ; while, in the ordinary forms,
each is perfect in itself.

The hydrothecEe may be developed in one or more series from the
axis. When in one series, the axis is round ; when in two, they
are disposed on each side of a double axis, which is sometimes flat-
tened ; when in four, they are arranged in a cruciform manner
round a cruciform axis. Their form and position are very varied ;
but we can, I think, collect the various forms into five types — linear,
curvilinear, tubular, rectangular, and incised.

Under the term linear I include those long, narrow hydrothccse,
which are entirely separated fi'om each other (PI. viii., /. 1). The
term curvilinear is intended to take in those bounded by curved

* In graptolites with a double series of hydrothecae it is dorsal to each series.

J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES. 155

linos, which gradually approximate towards the aperture (PI. viii.,
f. 2, 4, 5, and \'2). The curvilinear hydrothecaj are united only
at their base ; while the tubular have their superior or distal margin
entirely in contact with the lower portion of the inferior or proxi-
mal margin of the next hydrotheca (PL viii.,/. 3, 6, 7, 9 (?), 10,
11, 13, and 14^. The rectangular differ only in being angular in
section, instead of round (^PZ. viii., /. 8, 18, and 20). Sometimes
they are in contact for their whole length (PI. viii.,/. 18 and 20).
In the incised forms the inferior wall of each hydrotheca forms the
superior wall of the next (PL viii., /. 15. 16, 17, and 19/ I have
already alluded to them as having no distinct hydrothecse.

The inferior margin of the aperture of the tubular hydrotheca is
sometimes ornamented with a mucronate extension, or spine (PL viii.,
/. Zb). In the incised, the superior margin of the aperture is some-
times extended into a mucronate point (PL viii.,/. 19/ In some
species there is a row of minute pustules near the base of the
hydrothecjB {PL viii.,/. lib). In many fine strife, parallel to the
margin of the apertures, are apparent (PL viii.,/ 13^^ ; they ap-
pear to be lines of growth. The periderm of some genera is ii
regularly striated ; in others, it has a granular appearance. In one
or two species, I have detected, where the cuticular layer, or ecto-
derm, appears to have been removed — a reticulated appearance. But
from the imperfect state in which graptolites are preserved, the
nature or utility of these surface markings is doubtful. Careful
study of well preserved specimens under the microscope,* and
especial care in the illumination, may clear up these and other
doubtful points of structure.

§ II. History.

I can only touch briefly on the history of the British graptolites.

Bromel most probably alluded to graptolites, when, in describing
the fossils of Sweden, in 1727, he speaks of the fossil leaves of
grasses.

Linnaeus, in the first edition of his " Systema Naturae " (1736),
applies the name Gixvptolithus to certain natural objects, fucoid
markings, worm tracks, &c. In his " Scanian Travels " (1751), he
first describes and illustrates under this generic name, a trvie grap-

* A three or four-inch object glass should be used. A four-inch, made for
me by Mr. Collins, shows structure much better than a higher power.

156 J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

tolite, which he names G. scalaris. The figure represents a grap-
tolite with incised hydrothecae, their apertures being on its upper
surface, and from this such specimens have been called " scalari-
form impressions." This species does not appear in the " Systema
Naturae" until the twelfth edition (1767), the last edited by
Linnaeus himself It was the only true graptolite known to him,
and he did not consider it a real fossil, but only a mineral aggrega-
tion, or " lusus naturae."

In 1821, Wahlenberg considered that the graptolites of Sweden
were orthoceratites.

In 1828, Brongniart, in his " Histoire des Vegetaux Fossiles,"
referred them to the Algee, describing two species as Fucoides
dentatus and F. serra.

Nilsson, soon after, referred to them as ceratophydian polypes,
and proposed for the true graptolites the name Pi'iodon, a name
previously given by Cuvier to a genus of fish.

Bronn, in 1835, fell into the same error as Nilsson, by substitu-
ting the name Lomatoceras, previously given to a genus of insects.

Hisinger, in 1837, described five species from Sweden, mider the
generic name Prionotus.

Murchison, in the first edition of his " Silurian System " (1839),
altered the original name Graptolithus to Graptolites, describing
three species ; and Beck added in a note, that he considered grap-
tolites nearly allied to Pennatula or Virgularia.

Geinitz, in 1842, described five species, considering them Cepha-
lopoda.

Portlock, in the following year, first suggested their true affini-
ties. In his " Geological Eeport on Londonderry," he recognised
them as true zoophytes, allied to Sertularia and Plumularia, and
suggested that they should be formed " into several genera, belong-
ing even to more than one order."

Barrande, in a memoir on the graptolites of Bohemia (1850),
first subdivided the genus. He established the genera — Rastrites
for species having the hydrothec^ separated by a considerable
interval; and i?ef2o/2^es, for species which are not true graptolites,
having no solid axis, and a polypary of entirely different structure.
He also divided the remaining species of the genus GrajJtolithus
into two sections — Monoprion and Diprion ; the former having a
single scries of hydrothecte ; the latter, a double series. The
name Diprion had previously been applied to a genus of insects.

J. H0PKIN80N ON BRITISH GRAPT0LITE9. 157

McCoy, in the same year, raised tliese sections into genera,
altering the name Diprion to Diplograpsus, and retaining the
original name Graptolithus for the section Monoprion. In the
following year he established the genus Didymoyrapsus for species
having two simple branches.

Hall, in 1857, described a remarkable form with four series of
hydrothecfe, naming it Phyllograptus. In 1865, he proposed three
new genera — Dendrograptus, for species branching and re-branching
from a thick hydrocaulus ; Climacograptus, for species having a
double series of hydrothecas excavated in the margin of the poly-
pary ; and Dicranograptus, for species having a single and double
series of hydrothecae on the same polypary.

In 1858, Carruthers proposed the name Cladograpsus, for species
growing irregularly in two directions from the radicle, and re-
peatedly branching ; and in 1867, Cyi^tograpsus, for species re-
peatedly branching in one direction from the radicle.

In 1861, Salter proposed the name Dichograjysus, for species
having many branches growing bilaterally from a central disc ; and
in 1863, Tetragrapsus, for species having only four branches.

Nicholson has recently (1867) added the synonym Pleurograpsus
to the genus Cladograpsus, Carr.

§ III. Classification.

In a series of papers in Sir E. Murchison's " Siluria" (ed. 1867) ;
in the " Intellectual Observer " (May and June, 1867) ; and in the
" Geological Magazine " (February and March, 1868), my friend,
Mr. William Carruthers, groups all British genera of graptolites
into four sections. The genera of Section I. have a single series
of hydrothecae ; of Section II., a double series ; of Section III., a
single and double series ; and of Section IV., a quadruple series.

In a paper read before the Geologists' Association last April, I
proposed to consider these sections sub-orders, or rather families,
and named them respectively — IlonojJrionidce, Diprionidce, Mono-
diprionidce, and Tetraprionidce. The family Monoprionidce cor-
responds to Barrande's section Monoprion (including Rastrites), and
the family Diprionidce to his section Diprion.

The following is an arrangement of the British genera. It
differs but little from that of Mr. Carruthers.

158 J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

Sub-Kingdom, C^lenterata. Class, Hydrozoa.
Order, Graptolitid^.

Family I. Monoprionid^. Polypary with a single series of
liydrotlieca3.

Genus 1. Rastrites, Barrande (Grapt. de Boheme, p. 64).

Polypary simple (unbranched), consisting of a slender tubular
periderm supporting linear hydrothecje, free througbout their whole
length. E. peregrmus Barr. (PL viii., /. 1) is the typical species.

Genus 2. Graptolithus, Linnjeus (Systema Natura3, Ed. 1).

Polypary simple, consisting of a tubular periderm supporting
hydrothecae in contact for more or less of their length. G. prtodon,
Bronn (PL viii., /. 2), and G. Hisingeri, Carr [PL viii., /. 3), are
widely distributed species. I also figure one of the many varieties
of G. Sedgwickii, Portl. (PL viii., f. 4). It bears some resem-
blance to G. Salteri, Gein., to which I at first referred it.

Genus 3. Cyrtograpsus, Carruthers (Murch. Sil, Ed. iv., p. 540).

Polypary compound, growing in one direction from the proximal
end, and consisting of a periderm giving off branches from the
side on which the hydrothecje are developed. The branches re-branch-
ing in a similar manner. C. Murchisoni, Carr., is the only species
of this genus (PL viii.,/. 5).

Genus 4. Didymograpsus, McCoy (Brit. Pal, Fossils, p. 9).

Polypary consisting of two simple branches, growing bilaterally
from the radicle, and bearing hydrothec£e on the margin opposite
the radicle. " The branches of the polypary sometimes extend at
right angles to the initial process, sometimes they are bent back-
wards upon it, and less frequently they are turned- inwards from it."
(Carruthers.) D. Murchisoni, McCoy, is a characteristic species
(PL viii., /. 6).

Genus 5. Tetragrapsus, Salter(Journ.Geol. Soc.,vol.xix.,p.l35).

Polypary consisting of four simple branches, growing bilaterally
from a short hydrocaulus which is sometimes invested with a
corneous disc. T. hryonoides, Hall (PL viii.,/. 7).

Genus 6. Dichograpsus, Salter (Geologist, vol. iv., p. 74).

Polypary growing bilaterally and branching regularly, the
hydrocaulus or non-polypiferous base of the branches invested with
a corneous disc. D. octohachiatus, Hall (PL viii.,/. 8).

Genus 7. Cladograpsus, Carruthers (Trans. R. Phys. Soc,
Edin., 1858, p. 467).

J. .H0PKIN80N ON BRITISH GRArXOLITES. 159

Polypary growing bilaterally from the radicle, and consisting of
two primary branches, each of which branches and re-branches
from the same side of the periderm on which the hydrothecae are
developed, the radicle being on the opposite side. C. linearis, Carr.
(P/. riii.,/. 9).

Genus 8. Dendrograptus, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Group, p. 126).

Polypary repeatedly branching, in a dichotomous manner, from a
thick hydrocaulus composed of the united non-polypiferous bases
of the branches, the hydrorhiza probably consisting of a disc of
attachment. D. Hallianus, Prout {PL viii., /. 10).

This genus forms a connecting link between the true graptolites
and the genera Callograjitus, Dictyoneina, and Oldhamia.

Family II. Diprionid^. Polypary with a double series of
hydrothec£e.

Genus 1. Diplograpsus, McCoy (Brit. Palseozoic Foss., p. 7).

Polypary simple, with hydrothecfe developed alternately from
each side the periderm ; each series of hydrothecae having a separate
common canal. The solid axis is frequently prolonged distally be-
yond the polypiferous portion of the periderm, and terminates at
the proximal end in a radicle, sometimes furnished on each side
with a short spine. In a peculiar form I found in the Frenchland
Burn, Moffat, the prolonged axis is enveloped in a non-polypiferous
portion of the periderm. This is a new species, for which I pro-
pose the name D. penna.

Description — D. penna, sp. nov. {PL viii., /. 12). Hydrothecae
slightly curved, concave on the distal margin, which is at right
angles to the axis, and convex on the proximal, which makes an
angle, with the axis, of about 45 degrees. There are 20 hydro-
thecEe in the space of an inch, united only at their base. The
breadth across the entire polypary is l-8th of an inch.

D. folium. His. (P/. viii.,/. 13), is a very peculiar form. D.
pristis, His. {PL viii.,/. 11), is the most common species of the genus.

I do not include in this genus the species D. cometa, Gein.
Mr. Carruthers suggests that it should be made the type of a new
genus, for which I here propose the name Cephalograpsus.

Genus 2. Cephalograpsus, gen. nov.

Hydrothecae opposite, tubular, few in number, formed into a head
at the distal end of the polypary, and collected into a common
canal at the proximal end. C. cometa, Gein. sp. {PL viii., /. 14).

160

J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

Genus 2. Climacograptus, Hall (Gvapt. Quebec Gr., p. 111).

Polypary simple, with incised hydrotheca? excavated alternately
in each side of the polypary ; the common canal communicating
between the two series of hydrothecfe. The solid axis is frequently
prolonged distally, and the radicle is sometimes very long and
slender. C. scalaris, Linn. {PI. viii., /. 15). C. bicorms, Hall
(PL viii.,/. 16).

The genus Retiolites, a diprionidian form, I do not consider a
true graptolite.

Family III. Monodiprionid^. Polypary with a single and
double series of hydrothecse.

Genus 1. DiCRANOGRAPTUs, Hall (Grapt. Quebec Gr., p. 57).

Polypary, towards the proximal end with a double series of
hydrothec^, dividing distally into two branches bearing hydro-
thecse on their exterior margin only. The solid axis is double,
bifurcating in the axil of the branches. In D. ramosus, Hall {PL
viii.,/. 17), the hydrothecse appear to have the same structure as
in Climacograptus.

Family IV. TsxRAPRioNiDiE. Polypary with a quadruple series
of hydrothecse.

Genus 1. Phyllograptus, Hall (Canada Geol. Surv. Report,
1857, p. 135).

Polypary with four series of hydrothecse arranged in a cruciform
manner round a cruciform common axis. Each series of hydro-
thec« has its own common canal, not communicating at all with
the other series, and in each series the hydrotheca^ are in contact
for their whole length. P. angustifolius, Hall {PL viii., /. 18).

§ IV. Zoological Position.

Naturalists seem to have almost the same diversity of opinion as
to the zoological position of graptolites, now, as they had years
ago. Professors McCoy and Wyville Thompson place graptolites
among the Sertularian Hydrozoa ; M. Milne Edwards considers
they " have more affinity with Virgularia,'' an Actinozoon, '< than
with any other recent zoophyte;" Professor Huxley and Mr.
Salter refer them to the Polyzoa; while Professor Owen and Mr.
Carruthers class them among the Hydrozoa.

That they are really zoophytes there cannot be the slightest

J. nOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES, 161

doubt. Let us compare them with the three classes into which
zoophytes are divided — the Cajlenteratc Hydrozoa and Actinozoa,
and the MoHuscan Polyzoa.

The Actinozoa are divided into two sub-classes — Alcyonaria
and Zoantharia. The Zoantharia have not the slightest resem-
blance to the graptolite.

The Alcyonaria have a certain superficial resemblance ; the chief
point relied upon by those who refer graptolites to this sub-class
being the presence of a solid axis in certain genera — Pennatula,
Virgularia, SfC. ; but this axis is " thick and calcareous, and pro-
ceeds from the proximal end," while in the graptolite it is " slender
and corneous, and is produced at the distal end." The polypites,
moreover, are contained in the fleshy body of the Alcyonarian
zoophytes, while in graptolites they were contained in specially
developed thecse.

Graptolites, therefore, have a totally different structure to the
Actinozoa. Let us try the Polyzoa.

Most of the Polyzoa are protected by a calcareous polypary. In
graptolites it is chitinous. In most of them, also, each polypite is
entirely cut off from all the others by a septum. In one order
only — Ctenostomata, is there a chitinous polypary, and it is singular
that in this order the septum is not entire ; there is a small perfora-
tion by means of which the polypites are organically united to a
common canal. In graptolites, however, there is not the slightest
constriction, or indication of a dividing septum, if we except a few
forms in which there is an impressed line between the hydrothecse
and the periderm. This appears to be merely a surface mark,
similar to that at the base of the hydrothecse in the Sertulariadas.

Graptolites, therefore, having no septum, either entire or per-
forated, cannot be Polyzoa. We are now reduced to the humbler
Hydrozoa.

The polypary of many of the Hydrozoa is of the same nature as
that of the graptolite, and the internal structure is similar, as we
have already seen. There are free and fixed forms in the Hydrozoa,
and most probably, also, in the Graptolitid^e. It is true that in only
one genus of graptolites, Dendrograptus, have we an indication of a
hydrorhiza capable of attachment, while all the most nearly allied
Hydrozoa are fixed.

The organic connection, without any septum, between the indi-
vidual polypites and the common ctenosarc, which is universal in

162 J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

both graptolites and recent Hyclrozoa, warrants us, I think, in
including them in this class, and it only remains for us to decide
their ordinal position.

Professor Huxley divides the Hydrozoa into six orders, or, in-
cluding the provisional order, Medusidaj, seven. Of these, we may
dismiss from our consideration all but two — the Corynida3 and the
Sertulariadse — they only having a cuticular ectoderm. In the
Corynidge the hydrosome is developed into a ctenosarc, supporting
many polypites without thecfe ; in graptolites, the polypites were
contained in true thecae ; the genus Climacograptus is apparently an
exception. In the Sertulariadee, the ectoderm of the cffiuosarc
supports polypites enveloped in thecce. This is the structure of
the graptolite.

But in neither the Coryuidse nor the Sertulariadae, nor, in fact,
in any Hydrozoon, is there a solid axis. "Were it not for this, we
might place graptolites in the order Sertulariadce ; but as it is,
we must consider them a distinct order, their precise zoological
position being between the Corynid^e and the Sertularidse, and
their nearest alliance being with the latter order.

I should not omit to mention that I am indebted to Mr. Car-
ruthers for most of the arguments I have used. In his paper in
the " Geological Magazine" for the present year (1868), to which I
refer you for further information, this question is treated much more
fully than I have here attempted.

§ V. Reproduction and Development.

Of the mode of reproduction of graptolites little certain is known.
In the graptolitic shales of Dumfriesshire there occur certain oval
bodies bearing some resemblance to the gonothec£e of Sertularians.
They have been figured in the " Geological Magazine " for 1867,
by Dr. Nicholson, as actually growing out of specimens of Grap-
tolithus Sedgwickii ; but it is supposed that such appearances are
merely due to cases of accidental juxta2:iosition. In the autumn of
1866, when I first became acquainted with graptolites, I found
these organisms in abundance, in the precise locality from which Dr.
Nicholson obtained his specimens — Garple Linn, Moffat ; but I
could never trace their connection with any graptolite.

In the " Graptolites of the Quebec Group " (of Canada), Hall
figures a Diplograpsus with reproductive sacs attached to its
periderm. Adjoining the margin of one of these sacs are two

J. nOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES. 163

young graptolites (PI. viii., /. 30j, The recent Tubularta, a
Hydrozoon, is propagated in a somewhat similar manner, " the
capsules giving birth to progeny closely resembling the parent."
(Carruthers).

Of the development of graptolites we have more certain know-
ledge. I have found young graptolites in all stages of growth,
from a mere microscopical point to a completely formed polypary
(PI. vui.,/. 22 — 25). I have never found them in connection
with the supposed gonophores, or gonothecje. In fact, where young
graptolites are most abundant, these organisms are rare ; and in the
only locality near Moffat where Dr. Nicholson's grapto- gonophores
are numerous, I do not remember seeing a single germ. Germs
or young graptolites are figured in the "Geological Magazine"
and in the "Intellectual Observer" for 1867; in the former, by
Dr. Nicholson ; in the latter, by Mr. Carruthers. They are also
figured in Hall's " Grapt. Quebec Group" {PL viii.,/. 27—29).

Diplograpsus pristis appears first as a minute triangular body,
with a microscopically slender axis (PL vii., F. 2b). The hydro-
thec« are then developed along the free axis, which continues lo
grow faster than they are produced. Of Diplograpsus tricornis
Mr. Carruthers says : —

" At the earliest stages the young specimens show all the cha-
racters of the adult. There is the solid axis continued above the
polypary, and the three spines at the proximal end. At first a thin
membrane is spread out between the spines and the slender axis at
the distal end. Next there appear indications of the hydrotheca?,
and these increase in number until the organism attains consider-
able size (PL viii., /. 26). The growth of other genera is some-
what similar. Young specimens of Didymograpsiis have been
found with merely a radicle and a single hydrotheca on each side.
In most cases the first-formed thec^ are smaller than those after-
wards formed, and do not increase in size."

In Diplograpsus folium the oldest thecje continue small ; but the
young ones increase in extent by layers added to their apertures.
We find a somewhat similar mode of growth in Phyllograptus.
In Ccplialograpsus the thecaj appear to elongate towards the
proximal end, and after a short time do not increase in number, the
young specimens having generally as many hydrothecee as full
grown individuals.

The development of many Hydrozca is similar to that of grap-

164 J. HOPKINSON ON BRITISH GRAPTOLITES.

tolites. In the Sertulariadfe, and also in the Corynid^ and Lucer-
nariadje, the new polypites are developed at or near the distal end
of the coenosarc, so that the distal polypites are the youngest. The
hydrotheca is at first simply the cuticular investment of its poly-
pite, represented in the young bud merely by the outer layer of
the ectoderm; but gradually becoming " more and more widely
separated from the body of the polypite, and eventually opening at
its distal end to allow of the protrusion of the distal moiety of the
polypite." (Huxley.) We can trace even this in the graptolite,
for in the youngest specimens no apertures are visible. We see,
therefore, that in their development, and, as far as we know, in
their reproduction, as well as in structure, graptolites are nearly
allied to Sertularian Hydrozoa.

In conclusion — Do graptolites throw any light on the question of
the day — the Darwinian theory of the origin of species ? Let
us see.

The graptolite, a Hydroid zoophyte, has lived, and with it all its
class has died. The whole race has comj^letely disappeared, and
for countless ages not a trace, not a single species of its class, has
existed. Millions of years, it may be, pass away, and this class re-
appears — is re-created. Whence comes this recent class, the
Hydrozoa ? Can it have been developed " by means of natural
selection," from its fossil progenitor, the graptolite, when for ages
no Hydroid zoophyte has existed ? Or can the graptolite have
grown " by the pressure of external circumstances," out of its own
humble class into another and a higher one, and then but recently,
comparatively speaking, can this higher class have re-introduced,
by natural selection (or " pangenesis"), the class from which it first
originated ? I think not.

No Darwinist, I think, could imagine a germ (or "gemmule ")
lying dormant from the Silurian to near the recent epoch, and then
acting in the production of species as before. No Darwinist,
again, would allow that a race could disaj^pear and give place to a
higher race, and that in its turn could evolve the same lower race
from which it originally sprung. No ! Each class has been
specially created — created at its own appointed time, and to fulfil
its own special purpose ; and not only each class, but each order,
each family, and, I believe, each genus. I will not presume to say,
each species, for we cannot yet define the limits of a species.

J. H0PKIN80N ON BRITISH ORAPTOLITE8.

165

Table showing the vertical distribution of the families and genera
of the Graptolitidae in Britain and in America : —

•

1 — 6, Lower Silurian.
7, Middle Silurian.
8 and 9, Upper Silurian,

BRITAIN.

AMERICA.

i

'S

u

<

6

•n
a

C3

r— (

to

«

ft

•

*

*
»

• •

*

6

o

O

«
1)1

*

• •

*

• •

• •
*

>
o

a

?

M
a

o

'a

00

*
*

•

2

w

o

T-1

•

a-

CO

p

?

*
«

*

?

*

g
01

*

i

W
CO

13

a

Oj

*
*

*

«

• •

*
ft

g

a
o

I—I

o

00

*

1. M onoprionidEo

T^astritpR Barrande . . . .

Graptolithus, Linnseus . .
Cyrtograpsus, Carrnthers
Didymograpsus, M'Coy . .
Tetragrapsus, Salter . . . .
Dichograpsus, Salter . . . .
Cladograpsus, Carrnthers
Dendrograptus, Hall . . . .

TT DinriOTiidfP -

*

*
• •

«

•
*

?

*

*
*

*

Diplograpsus, M'Coy

Cephalograpsus, Hopkinson
Climacograptus, Hall . . . .

Retiograptus, Hall

TTT Afonofli'nrionidap

Dipiano£rraT)tus. Hall. . . .

# * *

IV. Tetraprionidse

Phyllograptus, Hall . . . .

*

Note — In the above table T have inserted the figures showing the supposed
equivalency of the graptolitic rocks of Britain and America from the evidence
afforded by gi'aptolites and the allied genera alone. The species afford more
conclusive evidence of this correlation than the genera.

The Hudson River formation (5 and 6) includes the underlying Utica slate.

The following arrangement of the Hydrozoa is proposed by Mr,
T, Hincks in his "History of British Hydroid Zoophytes."

Ord. I, Hydroida. Sub-ord. I, Athecata (Corynida?). II,
Thecaphora (Sertulariadse). Ill, Gymnochroa (Hydrid^e).

Ord, II, SiPHONOPHORA (Calycophorida? and Physophoridje).

Ord. Ill, DiscoPHORA (Luceraariadaj),

166
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VIIL*

1. Rastrites peregrinus, Barr. (original, from Moffat).

2. Graptolithus priodon, Broun (a, from Murch. Siluria; b, d, and e, Geinitz,
Die Grapt- ; c, Carr., Intel. Obs., vol. xi.). b, side view of the polypary;
d, back view sliowing solid axis partly removed; c, intermediate position ;
and e, front view, showing a section of the common canal and axis .

3. G. Hismrjeri, Carr. = G. Sagittarius, His. non Linn, (a and c, Nich., Geol.
Journ., vol. xxiv. ; b, original, from Builth).

4 O. Sedgwickii, Portl. var. (original, from Aberystwith). Associated with
this species I have found fragments of G. priodon and of G. Bisingeri.
From this I am induced to assign the rocks of Aberystwith to the Caradoc
formation. The geological survey place them in the Llandovery. No
fossils, except worm tracks, have previously been recorded from here.

5. Cyrtograpsv-S Murchisoni, Carr. (Carr, Geol. Mag., vol. vii.) This species
is only known to occur at Builth, where I have found specimens.

6. Didymograpsus MurcMsoni, M'Coy (a, original, from Llandrindod, Builth;
b, Baily, Brit. Foss., slightly altered).

7. Tetragrapsus hryonoidcs, Salt. (Hall, Grapt. Queb. Group).

8. Bicliograpsus octdbrachiatus, Hall (Hall, op. cit.) . With corneous disc.

9. Cladograpsus linearis, Carr. (a, Murch. Sil., ed. iv. ; b, Carr., Int. Obs.).

10. Dendrograptus Hallianus, Prout. iHall, op. cit.)

11. Biplograpsus pAstis, His. (a, Carr., Geol. Mag., vol. vii ; b, enlargement of
a narrower specimen, original, from Moffat).

12. J), penna, n. sp. (original, from Moffat). The fracture shown at c, must, I
think, have taken place during the deposition of the sediment in which this
curious specimen is preserved.

13. D. folium, His., a young specimen (original, from Moffat).

14. Cephalogra^isus cometa, Gem. B'p. (a, and c, Carr., op. cit.). The enlarged
figure is intended to show the general structure of the polypary. I have
not examined the species microscopically, and therefore cannot say that this
drawing is quite cerrect.

15. Climacograptus scalaris, Linn, et Hall (a, Carr , op. cit. ; b, c, and d,
original, from Moffat). The enlarged figures show the different positions in
which this species is preserved.

16. C. hicornis, Hall (Hall, op cit.). c, the proximal end of a young specimen
showing a well developed radicle, X 2 dia ; d, the proximal end enveloped
in a corneous disc.

17. Dicranograpitus ramosvs, Hall (op. cit.). At b, the pustules referred to, are
shown ; and on the left of c, are the axiertures of the hydrothecse.

18. Phyllograptus angustifolitis, Hall (op. cit.).

19. Diagram showing the structure of the genus Climacograptus (Hall, op. cit.),

X 8 dia. The division between the hydrothecse separates them entirely
until it approaches the axis, when it gradually becomes narrower, allowing
the csenosarc to communicate freely between all the polypites.

20. Horizontal section showing the structure of the genus Phyllograptus (op, cit.).

21. Young specimen of Climacograptus (original, from Moffat).
22 — 25 Germs of various species ^original, from Moffat).

26. Young specimen of Biplograpsus tricornis (CaiT., Int. Obs., vol. xi.).

27. Germ of a diprionidian species. No hydrotheca> apparent (Hall, op. cit.).

28. Germ of a dipiionidian sp?cies. Hydrothecse partially developed (op, cit.).

29. Germ of a similar species, fuller grown. Hydrothecse more developed (op.c.) .

30. A fragment of the periderm of DiplograpsusWhitfieldi, showing a gonotheca,
or reproductive sac, from which two germs are just escaping (op. cit.).

* All the figures marked a, and also Ic, 3c, 14c, 16d, 20, and 2G are natural
size. All marked b, and also 2c and d, 12c, 15c and d, and 17c, are enlarged 4
diameters. 2e, 21, and 27—29, are X 6 ; and 22 25, 12 diameters.

167

Bunt Spores. By M. C. Cooke.
{Read February 26th, 1869.)

I AM induced to bi-ing this subject before the Chib, primarily on
account of the prominence given to Bunt Spores in Professor
Hallier's works on Cholera Contagion, and, secondly, because they
are useful and instructive objects for microscopical examination.

Bunt {Tilletia caries) is a parasitic fungus which entirely replaces
the farinaceous interior of grains of wheat, and fills the entire husk
with a dark brown, impalpable powder, resembling soot. This
powder consists of brown globose spores, with a reticulated surface,
sparingly intermixed with delicate branched threads. Externally
the ear of wheat, when affected, differs so little from a healthy
ear of wheat, that only an experienced eye would detect the differ-
ence. The grains themselves are a little swollen and darker
coloured, but still retain the form of the grain. When broken
between the finger and thumb, a rather fetid odour is perceptible,
which led to the adoption of Uredo foetida as one of its older
names.

This diseased condition of wheat has certainly been known for
more than a century, since Matthieu Tillet wrote his " Disserta-
tions " in 1755, and from him its present generic name is derived.

It is no portion of my duty to refer here to the agricultural
features of this " foe to the farmer," or to the means adopted to
check its ravages, but rather to indicate briefly its microscopical
character and development.

In the year 1847, the Eev. M. J. Berkeley instituted some
important experiments on Bunt Spores, and published the results
in the second volume of the " Journal of the Horticultural Society
of London," in a paper entitled " Observations on the Propagation
of Bunt, made with an Especial Reference to the Potatoe Disease "
(pp. 107). As this paper contains the first indication of the true
character of Bunt Spores, I may be excused for quoting from it
freely.

" I procured," says the writer, " as good a sample of wheat as
possible, and divided it into two portions, washing the one care-

L

168 M. C. COOKE ON BUNT SPORES.

fully, and then sowing it with every precaution, that there should
be no contact with any of the spores of the bunt with which I was
experimenting ; the other portion was steeped in a thick mixture
of bunt and water, a portion of the black liquor being poured on
the sui'face of the soil after the impregnated grains were sowed ;
the progress of the grains and spores was then daily examined.
The clean wheat sprang up as usual ; but there was soon an
evident difference in the infected grains — a difference which was
distinctly visible till the ears were perfectly developed, when every
infected plant was bunted, while from the unimpregnated seeds,
not a single bunted ear was produced. In one of the bunted plants
not only the ear was diseased, but there was a streak of bunt upon
the stem, in which the fetid smell and peculiar structure were not
to be mistaken, a circumstance which I have never before observed,
nor am I aware that the fact has been noticed by others, and con-
firmatory of the opinion that the disease is not a mere alteration of
structure in the grains of fecula, were such testimony wanted,

" Four days after sowing I found that the spores of the Uredo
[Tilletia) had been sucked in, doubtless by capillary attraction,
between the yonng root and its investing membrane, which was
ruptured, germination at that period having scarcely taken i^lace.
The spores were quite as large as either of the two distinct series
of cells of which the young root is composed.

" Three days later I perceived the first traces of germination in
the spores. A little obtuse tube, thicker than the pellucid border
of the spores, in a very few instances only, and appearing like a
short peduncle, scarcely so long as their diameter, was protruded
through the external membrane. This surprised me extremely,
because on the mass of spores, whether on the surface of the soil or
on the grains of wheat, there was a white, very delicate, extremely
short down. On a closer examination, the greater part of the
grains of bunt were found to be clothed on one side, with fascicles of
white filaments, from two to four times longer than the diameter
of the bunt spores, and producing towards their apices extremely
long and slender, somewhat curved, acuminate, multiseptate spores.

" Three days later a large portion of the grains of bunt were
ruptured, either irregularly or in a stellate form ; a few more had
germinated, the filaments being evidently protruded from the inter-
nal membrane, and either straight or curved, and occasionally
branching off in two opjDOsite directions, the tips of the threads

M. C. COOKE ON BDNT SPORES. 169

being in all cases very obtuse, and many times larger than the
intercellular cavities of the tissue of the roots.

"The parasite, meanwhile, had undergone a very curious change,
the spores being no longer separate, but connected with one another
by one or more short transverse tubes, exactly as in the threads of
Zijgnema.

"Two days later many more of the bunt spores were ruptured,
and' the mycelium more elongated ; and after three more days the
parasite was vanishing, and scarcely visible any more en masse to
the naked eye, while the mycelium had increased to the length of
six or more diameters of the spores. The young infected wheat
plants were now evidently diseased, the sheaths and base of the
leaves looking crumpled, and spotted either with white or brownish
specks, and the whole appearance less healthy than that of the un-
impregnated plants.

" The diseased sheaths were now, in most cases, full of mycelium,
but no such appearance was visible in the healthy state. Though
the disease had evidently commenced, it is to be observed that the
tubes protruded by the spores were but slightly developed, and that
though the utmost paius were taken, I coiild trace no connection
whatever between these and the diseased tissue.

" In a single instance only, ten days after the first appearance
of disease, in examining some little white specks which appeared
on the leaves of the bunted wheat, I saw a curved filament passing
through one of the stomata, but whether from the outside to the
inside, or the contrary, I cannot say. The mycelium in these white
specks was not abundant, but thicker than the walls of the cells.

" In a month from the sowing of the wheat, the fecula of the
grains being then nearly absorbed, it was difficult to find any spores,
and no further development of mycelium directly from the spores
had taken place.

" The first bunted ear appeared four months from the time of
sowing, and while every impregnated plant produced bunted ears,
not a bunted grain appeared on the plants which sprang from un-
infected seed.

" The production of the parasite on the spores of bunt was con-
stant in my experiments, and was repeated at Bristol and Clifton
under the eyes of Mr. Thwaites and Mr. Broome, to whom I had
communicated bunted grains of wheat. I was at first inclined to
think that it had something to do with the reproduction of the bunt,

L 2

170

M. C. COOKE ON BUNT SPORES.

and it is quite possible tLat in plants, as well as in the lower
animals, there may he an alternation of generations. This is, how-
ever, merely thrown out as a hint which may be followed out by
those who have fewer avocations than myself. Many anomalous
appearances, amongst alga;, especially, seems to indicate something
of the kind."

Mr. Berkeley then proceeds to characterise what he deemed the
parasite of the germinating Bunt Spores, under the name of
Fusisporium inosculans.

This paper, which is accompanied by a page of illustratrations,
was communicated on the 18th January, 1847.

1.

2.
3.

4.

Bunt spores (magnified 400) .

Bunt spore germinating!

Producing spores of the second generation (conjugated).

Spores of second generation conjugated, and producing spore of

third generation.
Spore of third generation producing spore of fourth generation.

In the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1854, Mons. L. R.
Tulasne, in "a second memoir on the Uredines," showed that Tilletia
caries in the course of its development passed through a veritable
alternation of generations, and that the long fusiform bodies, des-
cribed by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, under the name of Fusisjoorium
inosculans, were the bunt spores of the second generation, which
in their turn produced long elliptical spores of the third generation,
which in their turn produced also similar spores of a fourth generation.

M. C. COOKE OX PUKT SPORES. 171

Hence what Mr. Berkeley had barely suspected in 1847, was in
1854 shown to be true.

In his " introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," Mr. Berkeley alludes
to his experiments on bunt, and the suspicions he entertained, for
writing of the bunt spores, he says f>. 32 Ij : — '' The spores,
however, are not immediate means of propagation ; they are, in
fact, only a sort of prothallus, from which the mycelium grows,
producing at the tips, or on lateral branchlets, bodies of various
forms, which are themselves capable of germination, and imme-
diately reproduce the species. These bodies were, I believe, first
observed by myself in Tilletia caries, though with nothing more
than a suspicion of their real character. I found that whenever
the spores of Bunt germinated, linear or fusiform bodies were
generated, which ultimately became joined after the fashion of
Zijgnema ; and Mr. Broome and Mr. Thwaites on repeating the ex-
periment at my request obtained the same result. In my uncertainty
as to their real nature, they were described and figured as Fusis-
porium inosculans in the transactions of the Horticultural Society
of London, and in the Encyclopajdia of Agriculture, under the
word " Bunt."

Passing from the germination and propagation of Bunt to its
supposed connection with cholera, we may remember that many
years ago, when the examination of cholera evacuations were said
to indicate a fungoid origin, and much was written and said about
the influence of Fungi spores in producing cholera ; if I remember
"lightly, some of these spores were submitted to Mr. Busk, and he
pronounced them Bunt spores, which, at that time more commonly
than now, were often found in flour and bread, and by the natural
course of eating found their way into the human intestines.

Last year Professor Hallier, in his " cholera contagium," again
raised the cry that cholera was caused by a fungus, but in this
instance one which he assumed to be parasitic on rice in India,
identical with one found in Europe on the leaves and sheaths of
rye, and known as Urocystis occulta. Unfortunately for himself
and his theory, the learned Professor assumed too much. It could
not be proved that the Urocystis attacked the grain of any food
plant at all, or that it had been detected on the leaves of the rice
plant. A long article favouring Dr. Hallier's views appeared in
the " Standard," the fallacies of which I attacked a few days after
in the columns of " Country Life." With almost as great facility

172 M. C. COOKE ON BUNT SPORES.

as he laid hold of Urocystis did Dr. Hallier renoimce it, and now,
no longer believing it to be the cause of the mischief, he transfers
all his condemnations to bunt spores {Tilletia caries), as will be
seen by his recent work on " Phytopathology," and the reports of
Drs. Cunningham and Lewis in the " Lancet," of January the 2nd,
9th, and 16th.

The entire foundation of Dr. Hallier's theory is an assumption
that moulds are related to Ustilagines, or " smuts and bunt," or to
use his own phrase, that " moulds are mere unripe forms of Ustil-
agines." In this assumption I am not at all disposed to concur.
The fact itself must fii-st be pi'oved, and this has not been done.
It is not only possible, but probable, that some of the moulds are
conditions of Mucors, as in the case of Verticillium aftd Acrostal-
agmus, and it maybe of Aspergillus and Mucor or Ascophora ;
but the relations between either Penicillium crustaceum, or Mucor
'racemosus and Tilletia caries must be very remote, or, if not re-
mote, not proven. Already some persons have accepted the con-
clusions of Dr. Hallier, without thought or question, and argued
therefrom that there is no sound basis of classification in Fungi at
all, that the whole study is a chaos, and that a new apostle has
arisen at Jena to the discomfiture of mycologists all the world over,
who is destined to overturn and scatter to the winds all the labours
of Fries, Corda, Montague, Preuss, De Bary, and Tulasne.

The theory that is to accomplish this is thus stated : — " If the
spores of an Ustilago be cultivated, two forms always appear —
viz., the schizosporangic ard the cladosporic forms ; if the soil on'
which any of these forms appear alters or ferments, the forms pro-
duced are different. He states that each species of Ustilago has
three ripe forms of fructification, and that each of these has a corres-
ponding unripe representative, the use of the unripe form being
probably, according to Professor Hallier, to j^repare a more nitro-
genized soil on which the higher forms may be developed. If
Tilletia caries be cultivated on weak, poor soil, we get only unripe
forms — i. e., moulds make their apj)earance.

These ripe and unripe forms may be thus tabulated, taking as an
example the fungus associated with cholera : —

XJNRIPE.

1 . Macroconidia

2. Penicillium crustaceum

3. Mucor racemosus.

RIPE.

1. Tilletia caries

2. Cladosporium

3. Schizosporangium.

M. C. COOKE ON BUNT SPOEES. 173

The ripe forms are distinguished from the xmripe ones by having
a cuticula developed, which makes them much more resistant.

I am not intending to enter upon an examination of this theory,
or Professor Hallier's propositions. This is not the time or place
for either. All I desire to do is to show the connection between
Bunt Spores and the cholera controversy, as an apology for bring-
ing the subject before the Club. I would commend Professor De
Bary's observations to the consideration of all who favour Hallier's
views, and, as a humble student, I would protest against assump-
tions being accepted as facts, and deny that Dr. Hallier has proved
by his experiments that bunt spores have any connection whatever
with mucors or mucedines, and consequently, as he admits, that
his whole theory is based on the supposed fact that " moulds are
mere unripe forms of Ustilagines," therefore his theory is without
even a plausible foundation.

In order that this brief commimication may be more complete, I
have added as an appendix the synonyms under which bunt, or
Tilletia caries has been known to botanists, and also a list of such
books, treatises, or papers on Bunt as I could remember, which
might be of service to any one desirous of continuing the subject.

SYNONYMS.

Tilletia caries — Tulasne Ann. des Sc. Nat., 1847. Vol. vii,, pp. 113, pi. 6,

fig. 1—16.
Uredo caries. — D. C. Flor. Franc. Vol. vi., p. 78.

Tessier mal des grains, p. 217.
Uredo faetida—F. Bauer in Ann. Sc. Nat., 1824. Vol. ii., p. 167, pi. 7,

fig. 17-20.
Uredo segetum — Pers. syn., p. 225.
Uredo deciplens — Str. Ann. der Wett., 1811.
Uredo oblongata — Ditmar in Sched.
Uredo sitophila — Ditmar. Deutsch., Flora.
Uredo sphcerococca—'R.&bh.. Deutsch., H. , No. 17.
CcBoma segetum — Nees. Syst., pp. 15, pi. 1, fig. 17.
Coeoma sitopMhim — Link. Spec. Vol. ii., pp. 2,
Ery&ihe fcetida — Wallroth, Flor., Germ. Vol. ii., pp. 213.
Erysihe folliculata — Wallr, in Verhandl. nat. Frde, i. p. 19.
Erysibe sphcerococca — Wallr. Flor. Germ. Vol. ii., pp. 213.
Ustilago caries — Dur. and Mont., Fl. Alger, i, pp. 302.
Ustilago tritici—Bnsb. Fl. Hal. p. 342.
Ustilago frumenti— Flan, Disput., 1709.

174 M. C. COOKE ON BUNT SPORES.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
TILLETIA CARIES.

Aymen — Du charbon — in Mem. Math. etPhys. present al'Acad. des Sciences,

iv.,p. 358. 1763.
Berkeley, Rev. 31. J.— On the Propagation of Bunt, &c. Trans. Hort. Soc,

Lond. Vol. ii., pp, 113. 1847.

Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, pp. 321. 1857.

Cooke, M. C. — Smuts and Bunt in Popular Science Review. Vol. iii., pp.

35. 1864.

Microscopic Fungi, pp. 86. 1865.

Cunningham, Dr. D., and Lewis, Dr. T.— Scientific investigation into the

Causes of Cholera. The Lancet, Jan. 2nd, 9th, and 16th.

1869.
HalUer, ^.— Phytopathologie.
Parmeiitier — Sur la Carie du Bled — Mem. de la Soc. roy. de Medec. Vol. i.,

p. 346. 1776.
Philip par Fr. — Expose d'une serie d'exp. faites sur la Carie, in "la Cultiva-

teur." May, June, 1836.
Traite organogr. et physiol. sur la Carie, le Charbon, &;c.

Versailles, 1837.
Prevost, B. — Memoire sur la cause immediate de la Carie on charbon des

Bles., 4vo. Montaubon, 1807.
Sidney, Rev. — Blights in wheat. (Tract Society), London.
Tessier MV Abie — Traite des Maladies des grains, pp 215 — 294, 8vo., Paris,

1783.
TiWe#, il/aWAieM —Dissertation sur la cause qui corrompt et qui noiriet les

grains de bled dans les epis. Bordeaux, 1755.
• — Suite des experiences et reflexions relatives a la dessertation

sur la cause, qui corrompt et qui noiriet les grains de bled"

dans les epis. Paris, 1755.
Tulasne, S. J2.— Second Memoire sur les Uredinees et les Ustilaginees, in

Ann, des Sc. Nat., 4 serie, vol. ii., pp. 77, &c., pi. xii.. fig.

1—26.
Wallroth, C, i^.— In Verhandl. der naturf., Freunde zu Berlin, i., 19

175

Memoir on a New Form of Binocular Microscope. By

Samuel Holmes.

(Read by Mr. George, January 22nd, 18 69 J

Some time previous to the introduction of the Binocular Microscope
by Mr. Wenham — I think in the year 1858 — I had been engaged
with the subject of a stereoscopic microscope myself and being
familiar with Mr. Wenham's former experiments, I came to the
conclusion that some use might be made of the property of total
reflexion from a glass second surface, instead of using any refracting
arrangement.

I now pi'opose to describe to the meeting an incomplete experi-
ment on this basis, which I ceased to prosecute on the appearance
of Mr. Wenham's beautiful Prism Binocular.

Now although this experiment of mine has been so long laid
aside — there was no Quekett Club in those days — I am still of
opinion that the scheme is worthy of further trial, and I have been
induced to bring the matter before the meeting by reading the
excellent remarks on the requirements of Binocular Vision in the
reported speech of Mr. Durham.

In this microscope I propose to divide the light from the object
glass into two portions, and to direct one half into each eye through
the medium of two reflectors and two eye-pieces, so as to gain a
more perfect knowledge of the structure observed, while such
observation shall be less fatiguing, being conducted by two eyes
whose optical axes are equally inclined. The object glass consists
of an hemispherical plano-convex lens, the plane side of which is
either ground off or ground into, two facets, representing the angle
of stereoscopic vision. This lens is placed over the object with its
obtuse, or its re-entrant angle — according to which form is used — of
its face, at an angle of 45 '^ to the perpendicular, in which direction
the rays from the object reach it, to be divided and reflected
horizontally to the eyes through two converging eye-pieces.

There is thus, first a plano-convex lens, to receive and amplify
the object; secondly two plane mirrors, for reflecting two distinct
and angular half-field views of the object stereoscopically, and lastly
a secondary plano-convex lens for still further increasing the ap-

176 S. HOLMES ON A NEW FORM OF BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE.

parent magnitude of the two images, and finally projecting them
into the respective body tubes of the instrument. But as in
the concrete form, both lenses and reflectors are entire, they have
but two common surfaces, instead of six, and will not there-
fore introduce any indistinctness by secondary reflection, for the
rays traverse the same solid medium until their final emergence,
and further the angle of inclination is such as to act by total
reflection and thus the illumination of the image is not weakened
by the change of direction.

The smallest amount of spherical aberration attends this position
of a thick piano convex lens, and the evils arising from bad centring
cannot exist, for the surfaces of both lenses are ground in the same
tool, and are in fact, but contiguous prolongations of the same surface.
This angular position of a hemispherical plano-convex lens was
first proposed by the late Sir David Brewster, only for doubling its
magnifying power, and for use as a diagonal eye-piece, hut hy the
addition of an angulated surface the duplication of the image is
secured for projection through binocular eye-pieces.

If the angulated surface is cut into the lens, the resulting image
should be pseudoscopical ; but if the surfaces are made by cutting
off the lens, the right eye will receive the left-hand image and
vice versa, and the result should be a stereoscopic representation of
any opaque object under notice.

I am sorry to say that I cannot exhibit to the meeting a com-
plete instrument on the plan suggested, but I must content myself
with offering for inspection the lens I have exj)erimented with.

It would not be difficult to render such a lens achromatic, by a
flint concave, and any magnifying power may be had by screwing
on, underneath the reflecting lens, the ordinary objectives.

This lens, it will ' be observed, I have made of two pieces, and
cemented them together with Canada balsam, because difficulties
of construction leave no means to make it of one piece. Perhaps
it should have been joined by some black opaque cement, to ensure
complete isolation of each semi-field of light.

12, Brunswick Terrace, Lower Eoad, Botherhithe.
November %th, 1868.

177

NOVELTIES.

Moginie's Collecting Case. — A new form of collecting case
has been recently brought before the Club by Mr. Moginie, of 35j
Queen Square. It is intended to accompany his well-known col-
lecting stick and apparatus, introduced some time since. It is
made of stiff leather, lined with baize, and contains three strong
bottles (" York " j)attern) of the size best adapted for use with the-
collecting stick, and four smaller bottles. There is also a screwed
ring for attaching each of the larger bottles to the stick, a space for
the steel cutting hook for gathering aquatic plants, and a small
magnifying lens, mounted in horn. The case is made to open like
a portmanteau, so that each bottle is easily got at, and no space
wasted. The whole is very portable, and is easily carried by means
of a strap over the shoulder. The article can be supplied for twelve
shillings, or, with the collecting stick, &c., for one guinea.

Porcelain Lamp Shade. — This has been introduced by Mr.
Hailes, and consists of a short cylinder of unglazed earthenware,
blackened on the outside, and for a short distance from the top,
inside. It is of sufficient size to drop easily over the chimney of
the lamp, and rests upon a gallery attached to the burner, or is held
by a projecting arm from the stem of the lamp stand. There is a
portion of the lower part cut away on one side, large enough to allow
the light to pass in the required direction. Its small size renders it
very convenient for travelling lamps, and the material being white
the interior forms a very efficient " white cloud " reflector. We
believe that the cost will be very small.

Plate for Shewing Compression and Flexure of Glass. —
Those who have studied the phenomena of i)olarized light are ac-
quainted with the remarkable de-polarizing effect produced by glass
in a state of imequal tension. This is often effected by rapidly
cooling pieces of glass of various forms, which, when examined by
polarized light, exhibit the effect produced by varying shades of
colour of more or less intensity. But the effect may be shewn, and
the cause demonstrated by arranging a piece of glass in such a manner
as to render it possible to apply pressure, and so bring the particles
of the glass into a condition of unequal tension, while under ob-
servation. Mr. Bailey, of Fenchurch Street, has reduced the size

178

of the apparatus necessary for the purpose, so that it may be laid on
the stage of the microscope. The necessary pressure being ap-
plied by means of a screw, waves and clouds of colour are seen to
start out in directions which depend on the amount of force, the ex
tent of surface over which it is applied, and the power of resistance.

QUEKETT MICEOSCOPICAL CLUB.

DECEMBER 18th, 1868.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Tbe minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.
The following donations were ann lunced : —

"Science Gossip," from the Publisher; "Land and Water," from the
Editor; " Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the
Society; "The Naturalists' Circular," from the Editor; "The Chemical
Geology of the Gold Fields of California" (read before the Royal Society),
from the author, Mr. J. A. Phillips ; two slides (Sections of Pearl and Heliopelta),
from Mr. Curties ; and a quantity of unmounted microscopical specimens, from
Mr. Eldridge.

The thanks of the members were returned to the respective donors.
The following gentlemen were proposed tor membership :— Mr. J. H. Allder,
Mr William Brookes, Mr. Alfred Deed, Mr. Basil E. Greenfie'd, Mr. J. Harper ,
Mr Louis Lewis, Mr. M. Pillischer, Dr. W. H. Sheehy, Mr G. Webb, Mr. C. E.
White.

Sixteen gentlemen, proposed at the previous meeting were then elected by
ballot.

The following objects among others, were announced for exhibition : —
Marine Dredgings, by Mr. Curties ; Gemmules of Sponge, by Mr. Groves ;
Orchisella pilosa, by Mr. Melntire ; and nine pen and ink drawings, from
Microscopical objects, executed by Mr. Hammond, and exhibited by Mr.
Moginie.

Mr. John Hopkinson then read a paper " On British Graptolites," for which
the thanks of the meeting were unanimously voted.

Mr. Samuel Roberts exhibited and described a new form of micrometer.
The arrangements for Mr. M. C. Cooke's and for Mr. Suflfolk's classes were an-
nounced, and after the usual conversazione the meeting separated

JANUARY 22nd, 1869.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The following donations were announced : —

" Science Gossip," from the Publisher ; " The Popular Science Review," from

179

the Publisher; " Scientific Opinion," from tlie Editor; Report of the Liver-
pool Naturalists' Field Club, from tlie Club ; three slides from Mr. Quick, and
sixteen slides of different varieties of Hippuric Acid, from Mr. Hislop.

The thanks of the members were returned to the donors.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — Mr. W. Atkinson,
Mr. R. Crafer, Mr. F. Evans, Mr. C. J. Fricker, Mr. A Hammond, Mr. J. W.
Barker Mr. C. Lavey, Dr.T. Prichard, Mr. W. Warner, Mr. F. W. White.

Ten gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were then duly elected.

The President reminded the members of an announcement at a previous
meeting that a Microscopical Society had been formed at Liverpool on the same
basis as theQ. M. C. Thenev? Society had met with great encouragement, and
a number of influential persons in Liverpool had joined it. The Honorary
Secretary of the Club (Mr. Bywater) had been elected the first honorary
member of the new society as an acknowledgment of the assistance he had
given at its formation .

Mr. M. C Cooke also announced the formation of a Microscopical Club at
Chicago on the same basis as the Q. M. C, which it recognised as its parent
society. Mr. Cooke also stated that his class for the study of Microscopical
Fungi would commence on the following Tuesday evening. If successful the
lectures would probably be repeated in the autumn.

A variety of objects were announced for exhibition, among which were the
Leg of a Diamond Beetle, with pseudo-scopic prism, by Mr. Crouch, and Spores
of the Bramble Brand, by Mr. Marks.

Mr George read a paper by Mr. Samuel Holmes, " On a new form of Binoc-
ular Microscope," which was illustrated by diagrams and a prism, no complete
instrument having been finished.

Mr. Suffolk read a paper " On some of the means of delineating microscopical
objects "

The author received the thanks of the meeting for his paper.

Allusion was made by Mr. Johnson to a method of delineating microscopic
objects (described in " Science Gossip") by throwing the image upon a
piece of ground glass, and then tracing it with a pencil, a kind of camera being
made of a cigar bos.

Mr. T. C. White suggested that if at the end of the cigar box a piece of look-
ing glass be set at an angle of 45°, and a piece of clear glass be placed above it
so that the image was reflected up thrciugh it, a piece of tracing paper could be
laid on the upper glass and the tracing made at once.

Mr. Mclntire said that in drawing from living objects he had found it best to
make a number of rough sketches on card, and from these to make a drawing.
If this drawing w re then placed on the stage by the side of the object, and,
the prism withdrawn, the object and drawing were seen side by side, and a com-
parison easily made.

The President remarked that he thought that the "cigar box '" was the best
way of obtaining accurate outlines. Instead of ground glass, if a piece of
plain glass was used, thin p)aper might be placed against it, and the object could
be drawn at once. If the eye-piece were in, the eye-piece micrometer might be
used.

The President announced that the Annual Soiree would be held on March
12th, for which date the Council of the College had kindly granted the use of the
building.

180

FEBRUARY 26th, 1869.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of tlie preceding meeting were read and approved.

The following donations were announced : —

" Proceedings of the Bristol Natural History Society," from the Society ;
"Scientific Opinion," from the Publisher; " The Monthly Microscopical
Journal," for January, from the Publisher; "Science Gossip," for February
and March, from the Publisher ; a Pamphlet, relating to the Electric Telegraph
(reprinted from the " Scientific Review"), from the Publisher ; two slides from
Mr, Curteis, and two slides from Mr. W. H. Golding; for which donations
thanks were duly voted.

The Honorary Secretary for Foreign Correspondence (Mr. M. C. Cooke) an-
nounced tbat tbrougli tbe influence of an Atmerican correspondent, the Rev. E.
S. Bolles, with Dr. Woodward, the Surgeon- General of the United States Army
at Washington, a series of micro-photographs had been forwarded for presenta-
tion to the club. The series consisted of about thirty mounted pictures, com-
prising a series illustrative of the effects of high powers upon one of Nobert's
test plates, and another series illustrating the Diatomacese.

The President remarked on the extremely pei'fect and beautiful character of
the photographs, and a vote of thanks was unanimously accorded to the donor.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — Mr. Josias
Alexander, Mr. C. Bennett, jun., Mr. F. Blankley, Rev. R. Blight, Mr. E.
Clark, Mr. G. Conder, Mr. J. W. Gann, Mr. Marshall Hall, F.G.S., Mr. L.
Jones, Mr. T. W. Kirby, Mr. Henry Lee, F.L.S., &c., Mr. F. Stokes.

Ten gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were then duly elected.

A number of objects were announced for exhibition, among wliich were a
microscopic fungus, Aregma Mucronatum, on rose leaf, by Mr. Groves ; Flea of
Mouse in Glycerine, by Mr. Mclntire ; Coccus of the Orange, by Mr. Oxley, &c.

Mr. James Jordan read a paper "On the Preparation of Rock Sections for
Microscopical Examination." The paper was illustrated by diagrams, and by
specimens in various stages of preparation,

A vote of thanks was unanimously accorded to the author.

Mr. Breese said that he had found great inconvenience in consequence of the
lubricating material being constantly thrown off by centrifugal force. To ob-
viate this he had converted his slitting disc into a ring or annulus, supported on
anotlier ring or collar, so that he could apply the stone to be slit to the inner circle
of the ring. The internal portion then formed a sort of reservoir, which retained
the lubricating material.

Mr. M. C. Cooke read a paper on " Bunt Spores." The paper was illustrated
by diagrams.

The President considered that tbe meeting was much indebted to Mr. Cooke
for his paper on a subject which was interesting, not only to the Botanist, the
Fungologist, and the Pathologist, but also to all who were interested in those
conditions of life of which the Pathologist treats. The cordial thanks of the
members were then returned to Mr. Cooke.

Mr. H. F. Hailes exhibited a new form of porcelain shade for a microscope
lamp.

181

Mr. Curties called attention to a beautiful series of drawings of Entomostraca
and Infusoria, by Messrs. Clayton and Tatem,

Mr. Moginie exhibited a new form of portable case for collecting bottles.

The President called attention to the ai)proaching soiree, and expressed a
hope that tbe members would form the majority of exhibitors.

In answer to a question by Mr. Golding, the President said that, subject to
the consent of the Council, the extra meetings would be continued on the second
Friday in each month.

The proceedings terminated as usual.

EXTEA MEETINGS

These meetings have proved entirely successful, and the experiment has
developed so much interest on the part of the members that the Committee
propose to continue them. It is desirable that notice should be taken of
the date, as the mistake has been made of announcing the meetings of the Club
as being once a fortnight, whereas they take place on the second and fourth
Fridays in each month, except Christmas Day or Good Friday. At these extra
meetings for exhibition of objects and conversation an average attendance of
70 members has been noted ; there has been no lack of instruments, and the
objects shewn have been most varied and interesting. Want of space prevents
enumeration in the present number, but an early opportunity will be taken of
noticing subjects of importance.

ANNUAL SOIREE.

The Annual Soire'e of the Club was held on Friday, March 12th, and afforded
a remarkable indication of the increasing interest felt in microscopic pui suits.
By the couitesy of the Council and the kind assistance of Mr. Robson, the
secretary, the resources of University College were made available for the occa-
sion. Nearly fourteen hundred ladies and gentlemen were present during the
evening. The exhibitors were also numerous, about 230 microscopes being con-
tributed — 140 by private members of the club, and the remainder by opticians.
These, with drawings, photographs, specimens of Natural History, and other
objects of interest, were distributed in the library and museum. Three rooms
were reserved for the exhibition of the phenomena of Polarised light, Kaleido-
scopic effects, and MicrO'photographs by Mr. How ; some interesting views of
Abyssinia from the Stereoscopic Company, by Mr. Martin ; and microscopic
photographs, pictures, &c., by Mr. Highley, all of them being shown by the
lime-light, projected upon a whitened screen. An endeavour was made to obtain
details of the objects to be shewn some days previously to the meeting, and all

182

the particulars whicli were obtained in time were arranged in the form of a
Synopsis, setting forth the name of the object, with that of the exhibitor, and
indicating the number of the table at which it might be found, accompanied by a
plan of the rooms, upon which the tables were shewn ,with their numbers appended-
It would be impossible and unnecessary to particularise the large collection of ob-
jects shewn, but especial attention was given to some remarkably beautiful Sec-
tions (longitudinal and transverse) of the Spinal Cord , which showed very perfectly
the ganglion cells and nerve-fibres, and their mutual relations. These preparations
were exhibited by Mr. Durham, and were made by Mr. A. B. Stirling, of the
Anatomical Museum, Edinburgh, and assistant to the late Professor Goodsir.
Mr. J. B Jordan exhibited Sections of Crystallised Eocks ; Polarised Crystals
were shewn by Dr. Dempsey, Messi's. Brabham, Hislop, and T. C. White ;
selected Diatoms and Polycy8tiHa,by Dr. Dempsey and others ; living Cheyleti
and Podurse, by Mr. Mclntire ; and abeautiful collection of dravnngs, Infusoria,
Entomostraca, &c., by Messrs. Tatem, Clayton, and Draper, were exhibited by
Mr. Curties.

The opticians who exhibited instruments, apparatus, and objects were
Messrs. Bailey, Baker, Collins, Crouch, Home and Thornthwaite , How,
Moginie, Newman, Newton, Powell and Lealand, Ross, Smith and Beck,
Steward. &e.

The company did not entirely separate till a very late hour.

THE JOIJENAL

OF THE

^itekett ||Iirr0Si:0pual €lnh.

On Some of the Means of Delineating Microscopic
Objects. By W. T. Suffolk.

(Bead January 22nd, 1869.)

[Abstract.]

I HAVE been induced to bring the subject of microscopical drawing
before the club, principally because the idea prevails that the pro-
duction of representations of objects viewed under the microscope
is attended with unusual difficulty. Certainly, this is the case with
elaborate representations, especially of objects as they appear under
the binocular microscope. But the production of drawings, both
truthful and of great utility as records of observation, is by no means
so cUfficult as it is supposed to be. We cannot all expect to equal
the minutely accurate drawings and lithographs of Tuffen West,
the delicate representations of tissues by Dr. Beale, so ably inter-
preted on wood by Miss Powell, the marvellously accurate figures
by Richard Beck, reproduced by some talented engraver, whose
name is unknown to me, but whose work I none the less admire — or
the wood blocks engraved by our own member, Mr. Ruffle ; but I
think almost any microscopist might be able, with the aid of some
one or other of the instruments I am about to describe, to make
useful records of his own observations — rough, possibly in execu-
tion, but still much more truthful than drawiugs made by a more
skilful but less scientific artist.

Photography is, under certain conditions, undoubtedly the most
perfect means of obtaining representations of microscopic objects ;
but, unfortunately, these conditions limit, to a great extent, its

M

184 W. T. SUFFOLK ON DELINEATING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS.

application. In order that a microscopic object should yield a good
photograph, it is necessary that it should be very thin, so that the
greater part of it can be brought into focus at once, the reduction
of aperture practised successfully by landscape and other photo-
graphers not being available here on account of the great loss of
light caused by the use of small diaphragms. It is also requisite
in the present state of micro -photography that the object should be
such that all its details can be brought out by transmitted light,
and should be colourless, or at any rate of a colour not hindering
the transmission of the chemical rays of the spectrum. These con-
ditions, at present, limit very much the application of photography
to microscopic purposes ; and the necessity of employing special
apparatus, and mastering a somewhat delicate set of chemical pro-
cesses, will ever prevent its extensive employment. The photo-
graphs by Dr. Maddox, and those issued by the Medical Depart-
ment of the United States Army, show well the capabilities of the
art, — the markings of the Diatomacese being represented with a
minuteness and accuracy so great, that photographs on glass will
bear a considerable amount of enlargement, by means of the magic
lantern. There is exhibited this evening on one of the tables, a beau-
tiful series of micro-photographs, taken and presented to the club by
our President, which will enable those who are at present unac-
quainted with the results attained in this department of art to
judge of its merits for themselves.

Drawing without auxiliary instruments is only available to experi-
enced artists, and is defective on account of its giving no key to the
dimensions of the object. It is chiefly of use for rough notes and
living objects in motion, where instruments would be of httle
service.

The principal drawing instruments attached to the microscope
are Dr. Wollaston's camera lucida, Scemmering's steel mirror, and
the neutral tint reflector. These are mostly contrivances by which
the pencil and the paper and the image of the object are rendered
visible together, and apparently blended. This can be effected in
two ways. First, as in the camera lucida, Scemmering's steel mirror,
and Nachet's instruments, by viewing the image of the object with
one portion of the pupil of the eye, and the paper and pencil with
the other. Second, as in the neutral tint reflector, where the pencil
and the paper are viewed through the inclined mirror, which at the
same time reflects the image of the object.

W. T. SUFFOLK ON DELINEATING MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS. 185

Soemmering' s mirror I have never used, and cannot, therefore,
speak of it from experience. Tinted reflectors are pleasant to work
with, but reverse the image, and it is necessary to use a reflecting
prism for the completion of the drawing. They are not available
for the binocular instrument on this account.

Wollaston's camera lucida, on account of its double reflectors,
does not reverse the image. It is rather troublesome to use on
account of the constrained position of the eye, but it is indispen-
sable when a drawing is to be highly finished, especially with the
aid of the binocular.

Finding the horizontal position of the microscope troublesome,
inasmuch as it disturbed the illumination used for observation, I
thought that the old principle of enlarging and reducing drawings
by squares might be applied to microscopical purposes. Messrs.
Beck supplied me with a ruled disc to be placed within the eye-piece
in the focus of the eye-glass, so that the field appeared to be ruled
in squares, and which very much facilitated the taking of a sketch,
by merely using a paper ruled in squares of a convenient size.
This process is, to a person used to drawing, much more convenient
than any of the other processes, as it in no way hinders the arrange-
ment of the instrument or its illumination.

u 2

186

On an Improved apparatus for the preparation of Rock
Sections for Microscopical examination. By James B.
Jordan.

{Read February 26th, 1869.)

To describe with accuracy the mineral composition of a given rock
is often a task of considerable difficulty, especially if the individual
minerals occur only in minute crystals or in granular masses, and
are so intimately associated as to show to the naked eye only a
fine grained appearance. Such rocks nevertheless frequently fall
under the notice of the geologist, who of course gladly avails him-
self of any aid — whether chemical, physical, or mechanical — which
may assist him in his examination. Among these aids there is none
more important than that offered by the microscope. By studying
sections of sufficient thinness to admit of examination by trans-
mitted light, considerable insight is gained as to the character of
the component minerals of the rock and their mode of association ;
whilst the value of such observations may be increased by intro-
ducing the use of polarized light.

The subject of thus preparing thin sections of hard material
has been fully treated by Mr. Sorby, and also by Mr. David Forbes.
At the request, however, of our secretary, I venture to bring it
before you this evening, for the benefit of those who are interested
in this branch of microscopical science.

Having had occasion to cut and grind a series of geological
specimens of rocks, fossils, and other mineral structures, I could
not find that there was any machine to be purchased suitable for
the purpose ; I was therefore led to design an appaiatus for myself,
which I have had in operation for about twelve months. As will be
seen from the diagram (on next page), this machine is in some respects
similar to that described by Mr. Butterworth in the January number
of Science Gossip. It consists of a wooden framework, a a, made of
beech-wood, and supporting a crank axle and driving-wheel, two
feet diameter ; the top-part of this frame consists of two cross-
pieces, a' fixed about an inch apart, as in the bed of an ordinary

J. B. JORDAN ON ROCK SECTIONS.

187

turning-lathe ; into the slot between them is placed a casting, B,
carrying the bracket for the angle-pulleys, C ; this casting is bored
to receive the spindle, D, which, by means of the treadle, is made
to revolve about 400 or 500 revolutions per minute. It is also

bored to receive another spindle, E, to the top of which is fixed a
metal plate, F, for carrying the small cup, H, to which the speci-
men is attached by means of prepared was. I find that this means
of mechanically applying the work to the slicer is far preferable to
holding it in the hand in the ordinary way ; the requisite pressure
against the cutting disc is regulated by the weight G, and the
thickness of the slice by the thumb-screw, K, on which the spindle
rests. By this means, I am enabled to cut tolerably thin and
parallel slices — the thinness, of course, varying according to the
strength of the rock which is being operated upon. The slitting
disc is made of soft iron, eight inches diameter, and about ^L of an
inch in thickness, and it is fixed on the spindle D, between two
brass-plates four inches diameter, in the usual way. The operation

188 J. B. JORDAN ON ROCK SECTIONS.

of charging the edge of the disc with diamond powder, requires
some little care. Having reduced the diamond to the requisite
degree of fineness in a hardened steel mortar (so fine that no
sparkling is perceptible on exposure to light), a few grains are
placed in a watch-glass, made into a paste with a drop of sweet
oil, and applied to the edge of the disc with a quill ; while the
disc is being slowly revolved by hand, it must be gently pressed in
with a small roller of glass, or hard steel, until the particles of
diamond powder are securely bedded in the edge of the metal, care
being taken to avoid getting any of it on the sides of the sheer. In
cutting, it is necessary to steady the work with the hand, and not
to trust for pressure entirely to the suspended weight. The work
must be constantly lubricated with brick oil, but spirits of turpen-
tine will, I believe, answer the same purpose. I may mention that
when we can obtain a sufficiently thin piece of the specimen by a
dexterous chip with the hammer, or other means, the operation of
slitting may, of course, be dispensed with.

Having prepared suitable slices of about -jIg- or |^ of an inch in
thickness, it is necessary to reduce them still further by grinding
with fine emery and water on a lead " lap," which is made to revolve
on the spindle (X)). This lap is eight inches diameter, and about
■| of an inch thick in the centre, cast with rounded edges, and
slightly convex sides. I find that this form facilitates the grinding
of a uniform thinness, there being always a tendency on a flat sur-
face (which soon wears hollow) for the edges of the section to grind
away before it is sufficiently thin. One side of the section can
easily be ground and finished by holding in the hand, and this being
done, it must be cemented with hard Canada balsam to a small
square of plate glass, in order to grind the other side, which opera-
tion must be carefully carried on until the structure appears distinct
and well defined. Mr. Sorby tells me that he grinds his sections
on the glass slides on which they are intended to remain, thereby
obviating a second mounting — the corners of the glass, in this case,
must be protected with small pieces of zinc during the operation of
grinding. This plan requires very careful manipulation. When
sections thus prepared are to be mounted in balsam, under a glass
cover, I have never found it necessary to polish them ; the only
finish requisite is best given by careful rubbing on a flat surface of
Water-of-Ayr stone (without polishing powder of any kind)

J. B. JORDAN ON ROCK SECTIONS. 189

until all traces of the lines of grinding and scratches are
removed.

Having thus obtained a perfect section on the plate glass, it is
easily removed, by gently heating over a spirit lamp, and should be
placed in spirits of turpentine for an hour or two to dissolve oif all
superfluous balsam. In order to ensure a perfectly clean section
it is well to boil it in fresh turpentine before mounting.

Thin sections of rocks are usually mounted in Canada balsam
under a glass cover in the ordinary way.

On the reading of this paper a series of specimens was exhibited,
shewing the various stages in the operation of preparing rock
sections for Microscopical Examination.

190

Some further remarks upon the Fly's Probosois,
By B. T. LowNE, M.R.C.S. Eng., &c.

(Read April 23rd, 1869).

The necessity for making some further remarks upon the Pro-
boscis of the Blow-Fly occurred to me for two reasons : first, because
I described certain structures in my former paper under names, and
attributed functions to them, which were the result of too slight an
investigation of this difficult piece of anatomy ; and secondly,
because I have discovered several most important structures since I
made that communication.

The fulcrum, described in my former paper, is a far more im-
portant organ than appeared at first sight, being in point of fact
the sucking pump of the proboscis : its walls are double, and these
are kept in close apposition by their elasticity, but are capable of
being drawn asunder by the action of the muscles which fill the
hollow of the organ, opening a cavity between them which is con-
tinuous above with the oesophagus, and below with the mouth of
the insect. The opening of this cavity draws the fluid from the
mouth and sucker of the proboscis, and its closure, which is effected
by its own, elasticity, forces the fluid with which it becomes filled
into the oesophagus and stomach. The necessity for valves is
obviated by the peculiar manner in which the muscles of this organ
act, the lower fibres contracting and relaxing before the upper
ones, so that a wave-like motion is given to the anterior wall of the
cavity.

The terminal joint of the proboscis encloses the ligula— a thin
pointed chitinous piece, extremely delicate at its free extremity, and
covered with fine seta3 ; the upper portion of this piece is united
closely with the labium, and the salivary duct opens upon its
anterior surface. The epiglottis, with its lateral appendages, has
already been described by me as being tubular above, and enclosing
the oesophagus ; but if that tube be considered to cease at the
superior extremity of the fulcrum, where its walls become corneous,
some modification of these terms will be advisable ; the fulcrum
may be considered analogous to the pharynx, and either term ap-
pears to me equally applicable ; the epiglottis, which is really a

B. T. LOWNE ON THE FLy's PROBOSCIS. 191

synonym for the labrum or upper lip, will more appropriately re-
ceive that name, and the mouth of the insect will be understood to
commence at its superior extremity.

The lower three-fourths of the conjoined pieces forming the
upper lip is open behind — that is towards the labium and ligula,
which it protects ; it is only attached to the proboscis at its upper
extremity, but is firmly fixed in its place in a kind of groove,
formed by the overlapping of the membraneous portion of the in-
tegument on either side of its whole length; it can be caused,
however, to start from its place by a little violence, without any
rupture of membrane, so that it projects forward and exposes the
cavity of the mouth. This piece is lined with epithelial cells filled
with orange coloured pigment.

The salivary duct is an elastic tube, which originates in a
sacculus on either side of the thorax : this sacculus is extremely
transparent, lined with pavement epithelium, and surrounded by
convolutions of the salivary gland, which opens into its inferior ex-
tremity near the middle of the thorax. The gland itself is a very
long convoluted tube, which closely surrounds the sacculus, above
described, with numerous convolutions ; it continues, however,
below the sacculus in fewer convolutions, until, at the opening
between the thorax and abdomen, it becomes straight and passes
through that openmg, bound closely to the oesophagus, and then,
passing backwards over the pulmonary sacs, dips down below the
Malpighian vessels, and terminates in a blind extremity near the anus.

This peculiar course of the salivary gland, together with the
close approximation of the lateral tracheae to the sacculus of the
gland, and the resemblance of the structure of the duct itself to
that of a tracheal tube, misled me, and induced me to describe the
relations and functions of these parts erroneously. I had not then
found the (rue termination of the salivary glands in coecal ex-
tremities, but had lost them several times, where they are closely
bound to the oesophagus, and where they may easily be made to
appear to open into it.

Ju3t above the labium the salivary duct changes its character
and dilates into a cavity somewhat resembling the human glottis :
this is a most perfect valve, for its anterior wall is elastic and
pressed back at its inferior portion against the posterior wall, so
entirely closing the duct at this point. A pair of long slender
muscles, arising at the superior extremity of the fulcrum, run down

192 B. T. LOWNE ON THE FLY's PROBOSCIS.

the back of that organ, and are inserted into the lower part of this
valve, opening it by their contraction.

The purpose of this valve will be evident when the whole of the
functions of the proboscis are considered. The united lips, as we
have already seen, form a sucker, communicating with the cavity
of the mouth, either directly through the triangular opening which
supports the teeth, or indirectly through the false trachea? of the
lips. I believe now that this sucker is exhausted, simply by the
muscular act of the fly's pulling against the central portion of the
disc, where the lips are united to the rest of the proboscis ; just as
a leather sucker is exhausted by pulling the central string. The
purpose of the false tracheas is, undoubtedly, that of a most effec-
tive strainer. The fly usually feeds on half rotten substances,
in a soft pulpy state; if such matter were drawn directly
into the cavity of the sucker, and from thence forced or
sucked into the tubular mouth and pharynx of the insect, it
would immediately fill that cavity and completely stop it
up ; the fine openings in the false tracheae strain out the fluid
portions of the food, and so permit the insect to feed on such soft
pulpy substances as decaying fruit, &c. It is easy to fill the false
tracheae with blood by allowing the insect to suck it ; my former
failure with coloured syrup may be attributed to the fact that this
substance was perfectly free from solid particles, and hence was
easily taken into the mouth through the triangular opening ; whilst
the blood supplied might and probably would always contain
threads of fibrine, which the insect requires to dissolve by the action
of its saliva before admitting them into the cavity of its mouth.

It will be easily understood that the sucker-like action of the
lips, as well as the opening of the pharyngeal cavity, would tend to
exhaust the mouth of air, and so to cause a flow of salivary fluid
into its cavity, which would continue as long as the proboscis was
in action, were it not for the valvular arrangement in the salivary duct.

The opening and shutting of the valve is controlled by a ganglion
placed just below it, behind the duct ; nerves from this ganglion are
distributed to the mouth, as well as to the long muscles which act
upon the valve ; any dryness of the epithelial lining of the mouth,
in which these nerves ramify, would undoubtedly communicate
an impression, and cause a reflex act by which the valve muscles
contract, and so cause a flow of saliva by opening the valve.

The air, which escapes from the opening between the lips, noticed by

B. T. LOWNE ON THE FLY's PROBOSCIS. 193

Gleichen and myself, is probably from the stomach, which often
contains a considerable quantity, forced into it, it appears, by the
pharyngeal apparatus I have described.

Two pair of cephalic nerves are distributed to the proboscis ; a
large pair arise from the underside of the cephalic ganglion, and
supply the lips and palpi, giving branches to the various muscles of
the organ ; a smaller pair arise higher up near that part of the
cephalic ganglion, which is perforated by the oesophagus. These
seem to correspond to the ordinary spinal bridles of insects, and
terminate in the ganglion at the back of the salivary duct. Near
the superior part of the pharynx they each send off a branch
which communicates with a small ganglion beneath the tesophagus,
from which filaments to the oesophagus and to the muscles of the
pharynx are given off.

Dr. Braithwaite and Mr. Suffolk expressed their gratification
with the character of Mr. Lowne's paper, and their assent with the
conclusions therein arrived at ; and Mr. Suffolk pointed out the
paucity of published works on the subject, there being only four
existing. The Quekett Club had brought some of the workers to-
gether, who would not otherwise have been known to each other,
and some of whose labours might not otherwise have been recorded.

The President asked Mr. Lowne why he called the organ of
which he had been speaking a salivary gland ? Saliva served two
purposes ; it softened the solid parts of the food during mastica-
tion, but the blow fly did not masticate its food. SaHva also effected
a chemical change in the food by converting starch into sugar,
but the blow fly does not feed upon substances which require to be
so acted upon.

Mr, Lowne said that he had simply followed the words of Cuvier.
Although the fly does not masticate, yet it grinds the food, and
the fluid of which he had spoken answers the purpose of saliva
by helping to soften the hard substances on which it feeds. It
might be wiser to employ a different set of terms to designate
the organs of insects from those which are used in reference to
animals, but in so doing we should complicate nomenclature very
much. Further, as we know that this fluid is a secretion, that it is
carried into the alimentary canal, and that it serves to soften
the food, he thought he could not be far wrong in regarding it
as a saliwi.

194

On a Secretion from the Stomach of the Flamingo.
By B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S., &c.

(Read May 28th, 1869.)

Some time ago my attention was drawn to this subject by a
paragraph in the Field newspaper, from the pen of my friend Mr.
Bartlett, of the Zoological Gardens, and that gentleman kindly
gave me the slide I have brought for your inspection this evening,
with most of the information I possess upon the subject.

The secretion in question when examined microscopically, is found
to consist of numerous oval blood corpuscles, together with some
beautiful arborescent crystals, probably chiefly chloride of sodium.
The following is the history of this slide, related as nearly as possible
in Mr. Bartlett's own words.

The Flamingoes in the Zoological Gardens have frequently
shown signs of breeding, but although they have been supplied
with sand for their nests, they have never done so ; they have, how-
ever, taken considerable notice of a pair of Cariamas which are
kept in the same aviary, and seem to have mistaken these birds for
their own young. The Cariamas have a peculiar habit of bending
back their heads, opening their mouths, and at the same time utter-
ing a plaintive sound somewhat resembling that of young birds ;
this attracts the Flamingoes' attention, and Mr. Bartlett has often
has often seen them stand over the Cariamas and making a slight
undulatory movement of the head and neck, pour a reddish fluid
from their mouths into the beaks, and as frequently over the backs,
of their jJortege's : it is a small quantity of this fluid which I have
placed before you.

My friend — and I know no more able, practical naturalist —
believes that this secretion, which he describes as a clear, red-
coloured, glutinous fluid, is the natural means with which the
Flamingo is endowed for feeding its young ; he thinks other food
may be supplied as well, but that this is an additional means of
nourishment.

Many birds are endowed with a power of secretion in the crop
for special purposes. Sometimes the secretion is mixed with other

B. T. LOWNE ON THE FLAMINGO.

195

food for feeding their offspring; the pigeon affords a well-known ex-
ample : when the young are about to be hatched, the lining mem-
brane of the crop becomes thickened and pours out a milky fluid,
which, mixed with comminuted grain, is given to the young. An
even more remarkable example is afforded by the Hornbill, for a
detailed account of which I am likewise indebted to Mr. Bartlett :
the male bird, when the female is sitting, is addicted to rather an
Eastern mode of procedure ; he builds up his mate in the hollow
of the tree where her nest is built, with a mud wall, leaving a hole
through which he feeds her, keeping her a close prisoner until the
young are grown. This extraordinary bird fills his crop with fruit,
and after a time, brings the whole up, surrounded by a gelatinous
envelope, secreted by the walls of the crop — this he presents to his
captive wife, a cabob of peculiar composition.

It is a matter of paramount importance for future observers to
settle, whether the blood with which the secretion from the
flamingo's stomach is stained is a healthy or unhealthy element
in it. Several of the swifts and swallows are provided with a
secretion from the crop, with which they agglutinate the
materials for their nests. It is well known that the swallows
which make the edible nest of which the Chinese make their
soup, elaborate that delicacy in their crops. It is, moreover,
asserted that when deprived of their first nest the second is often
stained with blood. This may be accounted for by the crop becom-
ing highly congested by the efforts of the bird to construct a second
nest. The case of the flamingoes may be analogous to this. We
know they are placed under unnatural conditions, and during sexual
excitement which does not lead to the development of ova nothing
is more likely than an over congested condition of the crop.

The formation of a blood-stained secretion is of importance in
another point of view, especially if this should turn out to be a
healthy act, which Mr. Bartlett thoroughly believes, as he thinks
it explains the old fable of the pelican feeding its young with its
own blood, supposing the flamingo to be meant instead of the
pelican. This secretion appears to afford an additional argument in
favour of a theory first propounded I believe by Bichat, that in
certain hsemorrhages the blood escapes from the capillaries without
any rupture of their walls, by a process which has been called
exhalation. I remember a very eminent professor of medicine
stating his belief in the process, and explaining the manner in

196 B, T. LOWNE ON THE FLAMINGO.

which the corpuscles might pass through the capillary walls by an
alteration in their form.

Even if the process in the flamingo is an unhealthy one, it may
still afford some evidence on this interesting point. In that case
it may be considered analogous to the excretions of blood-stained
sweat from the skin. Although cases of this kind are rare, yet
they are well authenticated in man.

Mr. Bartlett assures me that the hippopotami in the Zoological
Gardens frequently exude blood-stained sweat when furious, and
the same gentleman told me a very curious and interesting story
about a pair of rhinoceri which Mr. Jamrack, the celebrated dealer
in beasts, once bought, I think at Calcutta. It appears that the
poor animals suddenly conceived a desire to see their native forests
once more. They both escaped and rushed wildly away from their
keepers, who did not overtake them for a long time — something
like twelve hours, I believe — and when they did they found their
hides covered with blood, which did not issue from any wound, but
from the whole surface. A few hours after both died.

197

On the Imaginal Discs of Dr. August Weismann.
By B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S., &c.

{Read May 28th, 1869.)

The development of the fly has been the subject of a most elaborate
paper by Dr. Weismann, written m 1866 (Kolliker and Siebold
Zeitschrift, band. 14). Although the observations of this learned
naturalist have long been known in Germany, they seem to have
attracted little attention in this country, and some incredulity. The
specimen I have brought with me to-night shows the structures
from which the head and thorax of the perfect insect is formed,
attached to the main nerves, near their origins from the brain of
the maggot, which they closely surround.

The substance of Dr. Weismanu's paper is that the head and
thorax of the fly, with the wings and legs, are developed from a
number of discs (Imaginal-Scheiben) attached to the main nerves
and tracheee of the maggot, which do not coalesce until the third
day of the pupa state. The abdomen is developed from cells imme-
diately dependent for their formation upon the eight posterior
larval segments. Dr. Weismann states his belief that in all those
insects in which the anterior larval segments bear legs, the head
and thorax also depend for their formation upon the corresponding
larval segments ; but in those in which these appendages are absent
in the larva, the head and thorax of the perfect insect is entirely
dependent for its form and development upon imaginal discs, like
those in the larva of the fly. Another most remarkable fact in the
development of the fly from the larva, is that all the larval organs
undergo degeneration, and that not one of these remain in the
perfect fly. Extraordinary and incredible as these observations
appear, I am happy to be able to state that I have entirely verified
them, and trust that no great time will elapse before I place the
result of my observations before the scientific world. In the mean-
time I cannot but express my entire concurrence in Dr. Weismann's
views.

198

REVIEW.

A History of the British Hydroid Zoophytes. By Thomas
HiNCKs, B.A. In two vols., 8vo. London : Van Voorst.

Reviewing is not our province, but we cannot refrain from noticing
a work which has long been wanted, and which so well fills up the
gap which has hitherto existed in zoological, and we may add, in
microscopical literature. Since the appearance of the last standard
work on Zoophytes — Johnston's well-known " History " — twenty-
one years ago, some sixty memoirs on the Hydroida have appeared,
trebling the number of species, and rendering it a task of no small
difficulty to identify any of the rarer species of our Hydroid
Cselenterates.

Although Mr. Hincks' splendid monograph is chiefly devoted to
the description of genera and species, yet his account of the
anatomy and physiology of the Hydroida as a group, will, we
think, be found the most interesting portion of the work, for it is
here we find, in greatest perfection, that clear and logical expres-
sion and simplicity of style, which can only spring from a complete
mastery of the subject, and which renders such works as these
interesting alike to the general reader and to the advanced scientific
student.

The first volume contains the text ; the second, the plates, o'
which there are sixty- seven, lithographed by Mr. Tuffen West,
after drawings by the author, mostly original. With a few
exceptions, each species is drawn natural size, and with a portion
enlarged to an uniform scale, about twenty diameters, more highly
magnified figures being also given where necessary.

In the volume of text, a general introduction to the study of the
Hydroida is prefixed to the description of genera and species.

The terminology which the author adopts is first explained. As
few special terms are used as are consistent with scientific accuracy,
and these are employed in the sense in which they are generally
received, with one or two unimportant exceptions. The term
Gonophore, for instance, as here employed, means the whole repro-
ductive bud, and " the sexual zooid developed in it, whether as a

199

fixed sac or a floating polypite, is the gonozooid." The Gonotheca,
or chitinous capsule " within which the gonophores are produced,"
is of coui'se a distinct structure.

The Hydroid colony is then described, and here we find tlie
anatomy and physiology of the minute appendages fully explained.
The thread cells, with their retractile poisonous darts ; the palpocils
or sensitive hairs ; the nematophores, with their curious processes ;
the extensile filaments or fishing lines ; and the extraordinary
snake-like organs of the genus Ophoides, are especially interesting
to the microscopist ; and here he will find a concise account of
their minute anatomy, supposed functions, and observed actions.

The following graphic description of the circulation is given in
this section: —

"A stream, bearing along with it a multitude of restless gi-anules of various
sizes, issues from the stomachs of the polypites and rushes through the
cavity of the crenosarc, pervading every porti(m of the organism. After
flowing downward for some time, there is a pause in the circulation, and then
the current rushes back with great impetuosity, and once more entering the
stomachs of the polypites, mingles with the contents. A busy ferment takes
place for some seconds in the digestive sac, the larger particles hurrying to
and fro amidst the contained mass of food, until at length the efflux again
commences. The inner surface of the ca^nosarc is covered with vibratile cilia,
and these seem to be the chief agents in maintaining the flow of the currents."

The section headed " Reproduction " is a most absorbing portion
of the work, and here again we find a full account of the microscopic
organs.

In his description of the medusiform zooid or swimming polypite,
the author is quite enthusiastic. After minutely describing its
structure and functions, he says : —

"It would be difficult to exaggerate in speaking of these floating flower
buds, as they may well be called. The vivid tints which they often
display, the gracefulness of their form, the exquisite delicacy of their
tissues, and the vivacity of their movements, combine to render them
singularly attractive. Frequently they are so translucent that their bubble
like forms only become visible in a strong light. In other cases the
umbrella is delicately tinted, while the manubrium displays the gayest
colours, and brilliant ocelli glitter on the I ulbous bases of the tentacles.
To their other charms that of phosphorescence is often added ; they
are not only painted like the flower, but at night they are jewelled with
vivid points of light, set round the margin of the bell, or one central lamp
illumines the little crystal globe, and marks out its course through th's water.

Like miniature balloons they float suspended in the water for

awhile ; then they suddenly start into motion, propelling themselves by a series
of vigorous jerks or casts, and at the same time contracting the tentacles into
the smallest compass ; then thej' become quiescent again, and sink slowly and
gracefully, like parachutes, to the bottom of the vessel, some of the arms
extended laterally, and the rest dependant. In all cases locomotion is
effected by the pulsation (alternate systoleanddiastole) of the swimming-bell."

N

200

The rate of growth, phosphorescence, and geographical distribu-
tion of the group are then noticed, and the best method of collect-
ing the different forms is pointed out. In searching for the minuter
forms, the naturalist is recommended to select a likely pool, and to
lie down on the rocks beside it, peering into it patiently and
intensely, and never forgetting to look for the shadows, " for in
following them he will often secure the reality." The overhanging
seaweed must also be lifted up, for under it grow many of the
minute species.

Dichotomous tables, which greatly facilitate the identification
of species, follow ; and lastly the scheme of classification adopted is
fully explained.

The class Hydrozoa is divided into three orders — Hydroida^
Syphonupliora, and Discophora. The order Hydrvida being further
divided into the sub-orders Athecata, Thecapliora, and Gymno-
cliroa. The first and second of these have a polypary — the third,
containing the single genus Hydra, is entirely without. The
Athecata {Corynidce of Huxley and Tubularina of Johnston)
have no true calycles or capsules ; while the alimentary and repro-
ductive zooids of the Thecaphora (Sertularidce of Huxley) are in-
variably protected by true calycles and capsules. The Gymnochroa
{Hydridce) again, are free, while the others are always ultimately
fixed. Now, the natural alliance of the order stands thus : —
Gymnochroa, Athecata, Thecaphora. "Why, we should like to know,
does the author destroy this natural sequence by placing the
Gymnochroa last ? The sub -orders are further divided into twenty-
two families, and these again into fifty-eight genera, containing
about one hundred and sixty species.

We have only noticed the introduction, and of the body of the
work, can only say that it is admirably arranged, and shows that the
author is equally well acquainted with the literature of his subject,
as with the living forms which he so graphically describes.

A list of works on the Hydroida, and an index to the text and
illustrative woodcuts, complete the work.

In conclusion, we can recommend this work as a most delightful
companion to the sea-side ; and we may safely say, as the author says
of Johnston's " Zoophytes," that " it will always rank, with the
' Corallines ' of Ellis, amongst the classics of natural history
literature."

J. H.

201

NOTES.

On Preparing and Mounting Sections of Hard Tissues.

Some ten years since there appeared in " Silliman's Journal" a note by Dr.
Christopher Johnstone, " On Preparing and Mounting Hard Tissues for the
Microscope," which describes a method of procedure which is worth the notice
of our members We therefore give a summary of its contents.

A microscopic section should be as thin as the structure of the object will
allow, of uniform thickness, and polished on both sides, whether it be mounted
in the dry way or in balsam. The following requisites should be provided : —

1. A coarse and fine Kansas hone, dressed flat with fine emery.

2. A fine Stubb's dentist's file (or a watchmaker's superfijie potence file) .

3. A thin dividing file and fine saw.

4. Some Kussian isinglass boiled, strained, and mixed with alcohol, sufficient

to form a tolerably thick jelly when cold.

5. Canada balsam.

6. Glass slides.

7. Thin glass for covering.

8. One ounce of chloroform.

9. One ounce of strong aqua ammonia,

10. Some pieces of thick plate glass, one inch square, or one by two inches.

11. Thin French letter paper, of which 500 or more leaves are required to fill

up the space of an inch-
Coarse sections may be obtained with the saw or dividing file (excepting
BiUcified substances), but these instruments are not apj)licable to longitudinal
sections of small human or other teeth, small bones, &c. These should be first
ground upon the coarse hone with water, until the surface coincides with the
intended plane, then washed carefully, finished upon the finer hone, and then
polished upon soft Hnen, stretched upon a smooth block.

If the object be too small to admit of handling, it should be fastened upon a
piece of glass with isinglass, or, what is better, upon thin paper well glued with
the same substance upon glass ; and a piece of thick paper or visiting card,
perforated with a free aperture for the object, must be attached to the first
paper. This is the guard down to which the specimen must be ground with oil;
and its thickness and the disposal of the object requires the exercise of good
judgment. Hot water will release everything, and chloroform (or benzine)
remove the grease from the specimen, which, like the former one ground with
water, is ready for the second part of the process.

Now cover the surface of a piece of the plate glass with thin French letter
paper; next apply a paper guard, as before stated, but not thicker for teeth and
bone than l-500th inch ; then trace a few lines with a lead pencil upon the
first paper, in the little space left in the guard, so that the increasing trans-
parency of a specimen in course of preparation may be observed ; and, finally,
moisten the space with isinglass to the extent of the object, which must be
delicately brushed over on the ground surface and at the edges with tolerably
thin isinglass before it is cemented in its place. Gentle pressure must now be
applied and maintained by a wire spring or other means.

N 2

202

In two or three hours it will be dry, and the second side may be ground in
oil. A file may be used at first, but must not be persevered in, and the operation
must be completed on the bare hone. When the second side shall have been
wiped wdth chloroform, it may be polished with a bit of silk upon the finger.
After spontaneous separation from the slide and paper in warm water, the
specimen should be well washed on both sides in cold water and then allowed to
dry. After immersion in chloroform for a moment, and having been examined
to ascertain if free from possibly adherent particles, the section is ready for
mounting.

A few precautions are necessary with particular sections . Transverse sections
especially, should be dried between glass, to avoid warping, and very porous
structures should be well saturated vsdth glue and dried before being cut.

In mounting, spread a suffi?ient quantity of old and thick Canada balsam upon
a slide, and when cold •p^a.ce the section upon it. Cover it now with a quantity
of equally inspissated balsam, warmed until it flows, and then immediately
warm the slide, being careful to employ the least possible heat. Depress the
section, and withdraw every air bubble towards the edge of the slide, vdth a
stout needle, set in a handle ; put on the cover glass slightly warmed, not flat,
but allowing one edge to touch the balsam first, press out superfluous balsam,
and the specimen is safe. The slide, when cooled, may be cleaned with a warm
knife, spirits of vsine and ammonia.

The author of the paper expresses his conviction that neither Canada balsam
nor gum mastic will retain the first ground side of a specimen long enough
upon the slide to enable the preparer to reduce it to the requisite thinness, and
with both these substances heat must be employed, which is objectionable,
because most objects are thereby warped and cracked, and furthermore the
paper guard is indispensable for limiting and equalising the thinness of a
section.

The writer has tried this method with very considerable success. — Ed.

Marine Dredging.

A week or two since, five or six members of theQ.M.C. were invited by
Mr. Marshall Hall to visit him on board his yacht, "The Norma," for the
purpose of obtaining a day or two's dredging at the mouth of the Thames.
The party joined at Southend, off the pier of which town the yacht was found
at anchor. The hospitable owner had already a new dredge on board, and
another one, which was not new, was taken down by one of the visitors. The
first attempt made with the new dredge proved a failure, as did every tria^
made with it during the day. The old one was then hove overboard, and
soon yielded a large number of specimens. As the trial was merely considered
an experimental one, no note of species was made, but several were preserved
alive for some days, and exhibited at the next meeting of the Club, aad also
at the College of Physicians ; and we have, at the moment of writing, several
living specimens of Noctiluca miUaris, which were obtained on the second day
by means of a muslin net.

Our chief object in recording the excursion, is to point out the rich harvest
of beautiful living organisms, which can be obtained at a comparatively small
cof^t by means of the dredge. Many, or indeed, most of the specimens obtained,
have only been seen ali\ e by professional naturalists, and but little is known of
their life history. Facts are required, and these facts can only be obtained by
the observations of a number of persons interested in the pursuit. It may

203

be noticed, too, tliat tlie specimens obtained on the shore at low water are not
in so great perfection as those which are obtained from the sea bottom, while
many species are only found below low water mark.

The requisites for dredging are few, the chief thing required being the
dredge. We recommend one of small size, such as those used in obtaining
whelks, &c., by fishermen. They are small enough to be portable, and yet
heavy enough to keep close to the bottom without jumping over it. Buckets
filled with water form the best receptacles in the first instance, as the
specimens can there be washed, and a selection made for deposition in
glass vessels for subsequent examination. Even for carriage we prefer glass,
as the material of the jars, as earthenware is porous, difiicult to keep clean,
and liable to leak after a time. A long line should be provided of the kind
known as a deep sea line, and boatmen may easily be found at most places
on the coast, who know sufficient of the ground to be traversed for the pur-
pose of guiding the collector. A net of fine muslin, spread over a ring and
attached to a stick, will be most useful for obtaining many swimming
animals, and especially some of the larval forms, on a calm, sunny day, thus
afi'ording abundant material to the microscopist. Now that many of our
members are likely to visit the coast, many opportunities will ofi'er themselves
for exercising this method of obtaining specimens for study in the way of
our favourite pursuit. — Ed.

The Fauna of the Victoria Docks.

Mr. Kent, of the British Museum, at one of the excursions of the Quekett
Club to the Victoria Docks, discovered a new Nudibranch of the genus Emble-
to7iia, which he calls E. Grayii, also anew Polyzoon, large numbers of a species
of Mysis, the respiratory organs of which he has been investigating, and besides
these that most interesting fresh-water Hydrozoon, Cordylopliora. These in-
teresting forms are associated with a vast variety of fresh-water Eotiferse,
Entomostraca, and Infusoria. The occurrence of Embletonia in this position
is exceedingly interesting. It appears, from some observations of Dr. Gray,
that Embletonia pallida is frund in the Baltic, extending far up into that part
of the sea, where the water becomes almost fresh. Hence the occurrence of the
genus in the brackish or nearly fresh water of Victoria Docks is not without
parallel. It is an important subject for inquiry, as to how the fauna of the
Victoria Docks originated. Is it the representative of an ancient marsh fauna,
presenting in its Nudibranch and Hydrozoon an indication of the recession of
the sea ? Or has Embletonia been introduced with ships and established itself,
and has Cordylopliora, long since adapted to lacustrine conditions, also been
introduced since the time when the area was a marine one?' — Quarterly Jov.rnal
of Science.

)
" The State Microscopical Society of Illinois.''^

Under this somewhat pretentious title a file of " The Chicago Sunday Times,"
date May 30th, 18G9, devotes six columns, with the heading of " Microscopy " in
large capitals, to an account of the first conversazione of the Society, and we are
also favoured with its history. It seems that in the early part of last winter "The

204

Chicago Microscopical Club was formed in connexion with the Chicago Academy
of Natural Sciences ;" but evidently taking the cue from another Society at home
(which is mentioned by name), it is thought necessary to make the infant Club
into a fashionable Society ; and accordingly ' ' a bill was immediately prepared
and sent to the State Legislature, and a law was passed, incorporating ' The
State Microscopical Society of Illinois.' " It is stated that the number of mem-
bers is 60, and on the occasion of the Soiree 50 microscopes were exhibited."
What effect the charter of incorporation may have in stimulating real work we
are not yet told, but doubtless we shall see the results in due time.

Type Slides.

We have recently been favoured by Mr- Curties with an examination of an-
other Type Slide sent over by M. MuUer, and containing 100 diatoms ; these
are arranged in straight lines, forming a square of such a size as to be easily in-
cluded in the field of a |-object glass, and the price is nearly one-third of that
noticed on a former occasion.

205

QUEKETT MICROSCOPICAL CLUB.

MARCH 19th, 1869.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding meeting were read and approved .

The following donations were announced :— " Scieutific Opinion," from the
Publisher; " SciAce Gossip," from the Publisher; "Land and Water " from
the Editor; " On the Caudal Heart of the Eel," from Dr. Wharton Jones;
The Copper Plates of Dr. Hooke's ' Micrographia," 1745, from Mr. J. J. Fox;
"The Monthly Microscopical Journal," from the Publisher ; Michael Colombo's
" Mikroskopische Beobachlungen von Polypen des Sussen Wassers," and
Eichorn's "Beytrage zur natur geschichte der Kleinsten Wasser," from Mr. Jno.
Wheldon; some casts of Diatoms from Dr. Maddox; a series of Micro-Photographs,
and two bottles of Diatoms, from Professor Arthur Mead Edwards, of New
York ; two slides of Deep Sea Soundings, from Mr. Hailes ; and six slides from
Mr. Slade.

Thanks to the donors were voted unanimously.

The following gentlemen were proposed for membership : — Mr Henry Long,
Mr. Charles Frederick White, Mr. Vernon Smith, Mr. Delferier, Jan., Mr.
Thomas H. Collins, Mr. T. G. Smart, Mr. Thomas Jefferson, Dr. Henry Law-
eon, Mr. Arthur Edwin Quekett, Mr. Alfred J. S. Quekett, Rev. William
Quekett.

Thirteen gentlemen proposed at the previous meeting were then ballotted for,
and subsequently declared duly elected.

The Eev. E. C. Bolles, President of the Portland (Maine, U.S.A.), Society
of Natural History, and M. Alphonse de Brebisson, of Palaise, Normandy, were
proposed and duly elected honorary members of the Club.

Among other objects announced for exhibition was Amphipleura pellucida,
by Mr. Thomas Powell.

Mr. Suffolk read a paper " On a Method of Drying Microscopic Objects."

The thanks of the meeting were presented to the author of the paper.

A discussion ensued, which mainly turned on the construction of a vessel
capable of containing ether, without allowing it to evaporate. Various materials
were sugajested for the joint, including cork pressed upon an edge, vulcanised
rubber, and gold beaters' skin.

Mr, T. F. Wight read a paper " On a Method of Coating Glass Chimneys."
The method simjjly consisted in making a mixture of whiting, or plaster of Paris
and water, and coating the inside of the glass chimney, allowing it to dry, and
then removing the portion through which the light was required to pass.

Mr. Slade then gave a detailed description of the slides which he had pre-
sented to tlie Cabinet.

The President announced the first field excursion for Saturday, April 3rd, to
Hampstead Heath, and also stated that at the next meeting Mr. B T. Lowne
woald furnish " Some further remarks on the Proboscis of the Blow Fly."

The meeting terminated in the usual manner,

206

APRIL 23rd, 1869.
Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The minates of the preceding meeting were read and approved.

The following donations were announced :—" Science Gossip," from the
Publisher; " Land and Water,'' from the Editor ; "The Proceedings of the
Bristol Natural History Society," from the Society; " The Proceedings of the
Portland (Maino, U. S. A.) Society," from the Society ; "Scientific Opinion,"
from the Publisher, " Monthly Microscopical Journal," from the Publisher ;
a slide of Brazilian Beetle, mounted between two pieces of thin glass,
from Mr. W. H, Golding ; four varieties of Crystals of Santonine,
from Mr. Hislop ; four slides of Diatoms, from Mr. Kitton ; and 165 slides from
Mr. M. C. Cooke.

The thanks of the meeting were presented to the donors.

The following gentlemen were -proposed for membership : — Mr. Charles
Edward Bean, Mr. Henry W. Lowe, Mr- Walter B. Cole, Mr. Arthur Cottam,
F.R.A.S., Mr. Edward Evans, Mr. E Farmer, F.R.M.S., F.G.S., Mr. George
Holmes Fryer, Mr. D. Ibbetson, Mr Edmund Albert Letts, Mr. Henry
Matthews, Dr. John Millar, F.L.S., G.S , R.M.S., Mr. William B. Pepler,
Mr. William J. Rowley, Mr Samuel W. Scoble, Professor J. B. Simonds, Mr.
Henry G. Sketchley, Mr. F. J. Thirlwall, Mr Henry Walker, Mr. M. Welsh,
Mr. Charles Henry Wood.

The President gave notice, on the part of the Committee, that the next meeting
of the Club would be made special for the purpose of considering certain alter-
ations in the laws, which were read to the meeting.

A number of specimens were announced for exhibition.

Mr. Lowne then read : ' ' Some further remarks on the Anatomy of the Blow
Fly."

A vote of thanks was given to Mr . Lowne.

A discussion ensued. See page 193,

Ml . Love exhibited and described a new form of turn-table, in which the glass
slip was held by checks, so as to make it self-centering.

Mr. Hislop pointed out that the same result might be obtained more simply by
placing two pins at opposite sides of the centre of the revolving plate, against
each of which the opposite sides of the slip being made to bear, the instrument
would be self-centering, without reference to any slight variation of the width
of the slip. The screws securing the springs, would answer the same purpose
if placed exactly opposite each other, and at the same distance from the
centre.

Dr. Braithwaite drew attention to a fine specimen of a moss, AntitricMa
curtipendula, from the forest of Fontainebleau, which was rarely found in fruit
in this country, except at Wistman's Wood on Dartmoor

Mr. Breese exhibited some sections of soft vegetable tissues, made by first
saturating the substance with gum before cutting. It then resembled the con-
sistence of cork.

A letter was received from Mr. M. C. Cooke, enclosing one from the Rev. E.
0. Bolles, of Portland, U.S.A., returning thanks for his election as an honorary
foreign member.

After the usual conversazione the meeting terminated

207

MAY 28th, 1869.

Arthur E. Durham, Esq., President, in the Chair.

The meeting having been made special by notice from the committee at the
previous meeting, in order to consider certain proposed alterations in the laws,
the President called npon the Secretary to read the amendments, with the laws
to which they referred, as follows : —

In place of —

II. That the business of the Club be conducted by a President, four Vice-
Presdents, a Committee of twelve members (four of whom shall be a quorum),
a Treasurer, a Secretary, together with an Honorary Secretary for Foreign Cor-
respondence, who however shall not be ex officio a member of the Committee,
and the Editor of the Journal for the time being. That two of the retiring
Vice-Presidents shall not be eligible for re-election. That the four senior
m.embers of the Committee (by election) retire annually, and be not eligible for
re-election ; but such retiring members may be nominated by the Committee to
fill the vacancies occurring otherwise than by regular annual retirement. Such
retiring members are also eligible for nomination by independent members of
the Club, in accordance vdth the third paragraph of Kule III.

*' That the business of the Club be conducted by the President, four Vice-Presi-
dents, the Treasurer, the Sonorary Secretary , the So7iorary Secretary for Foreign
Correspondence, and a Committee of twelve other Members, (six to form a quorum) .
That the Editor of the Journal be ex officio an additional Member of the Committee.
That the President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, and two Secretaries , with the four
senior Members of the Committee (by election) retire annually, hut be eligible for
re-election "

In place of —

III. That the Officers and four members of the Committee shall be elected at
the Annual Meeting in July. That the Committee shall prepare a list of
names of gentlemen to be recommended to the Club for election as officers.
This list shall be read at the ordinary meeting in June; and any three or more
members who maybe desirous of nominating any other member or members for
election to any office shall have power to do so, provided such nomination be
delivered to the Secretary duly signed, before the close of the meeting; and the
name or names of any member or members so proposed shall be printed on the
balloting papers, below the names proposed by the Committee.

" That at the Ordinary Meeting in June, Nominations be made of Candidates to
fill the offices of Vice-Presidents and vacancies on the Committee. That such nomi-
nations he made by resolutions duly moved and seconded, no Member being entitled
to propose more than one Candidate. That in the event of such nominations exceed-
ing one half more than the number of vacant offices, tlie Candidates be reduced by
show of hands to such proportion. That the President, Treasurer, Honorary
Secretary., and Sonorary Secretary for Foreign Correspondence he nominated hy the
Committee. That a list of all nominations made as above, be printed in alphabetical
order upon the Ballot Paper. That at the Annual General Meeting in July, all the
above Cffifers be elected by Ballot from the Caiididates named in the lists, hut any

208

Member is at liberty to substitute on his Ballot paper, any other name or names in
lieu of those nominated for the offices of President, Treasurer, Honorary Secretary,
and Honorary Secretary for Foreign Correspondence. "

In place of —

VII. That the Annual Subscription shall be Ten Shillings, payable in
advance on the 1st of July, but that any member elected in May or June shall
be exempt from subscription until the following July of the same year. That
no person shall be considered as a member entitled to the full privileges of the
Club until his subscription shall have been paid; and that any member omitting
to pay his subscription six months after the same shall have become due shall,
after two applications in writing have been made by the Treasurer, be deemed
to have ceased to be connected with the Club.

" That the Annual Subscription be Ten Shillings, payable in advance on the 1st of
July, hut that any Member elected in May or June be exempt from subscription
until the following July. That any Member desirous of compounding for his future
subscriptions, may do so at any time by payment of the sum of Ten Pounds ; all
such sums to be duly invested in such manner as the Committee shall think fit. That
no person be entitled to the full privileges of the Club until his subscription shall
have been paid ; and that any Member omitting to pay his subscription six months
after the same shall have become due (two applications in writing having been made
by the Treasurer) , shall cease to be a Member of the Club."

In place of —

VIII. That the Accounts of the Club shall be audited by two members, one to
be appointed by the Committee, and one to be elected by the members present
at the meeting in June.

" That the Accounts of the Club be audited by two Members, to be appointed at
the ordinary Meeting in June."

In place of —

IX. That the Annual General Meeting be held on the fourth Friday in July,
at which a General Eeport of the Committee on the affairs of the Club, and a
Balance sheet duly signed by the Auditors, shall be read. The Committee shall
hand in a list of the names proposed for election as President, Vice-Presidents,
Treasurer, and Secretaries; also the names of the four retiring members of the
Committee, and the names of the members recommended to fill their places;
and the Chairman having nominated two members, not being members of the
Committee, to act as Scrutineers, the meeting shall then proceed to ballot. If
from any cause these elections, or any of them, cannot take place at this
Meeting, they shall take place at the next ordinary meeting of the Club.

" That the Annual General Meeting be held on the fourth Friday in July, at
which the Report of the Committee on the affairs of the Club, and the Balance
Sheet duly signed by the Auditors, sliall be read. Printed lists of Members nomi-
nated for election as President, Vice-Presidents, Treasurer, Secretaries, and
Members of Committee having been distributed, and the Chairman having appointed
two or more 3Iemhers to act as Scrutineers, the Meeting shall then proceed to
ballot. If from any cause these elections, or any of them, do not take place at this
Meeting, they shall be made at the ne.vt ordinary Meeting of the Club,"

209

In place of —

X. That at the Ordinary Meetings the following shall be the Order of
Business : —

(1.) The Minutes of the last meeting shall be read and proposed for
confirmation, and signed by the Chairman

(2.) Donations to the Club since the last meeting shall be announced
and exhibited.

(3.) Certificates for new members shall be read .

(4.) Ballots for new members shall be taken,

" TJiat at the Ordinary Meetings the following business he transacted : —
The minutes of the last Meeting shall be read and confirmed.
Donations to the Club since the last Meeting announced and exhibited.
Sallotafor new Members taken.
Papers read and discu,ssed, and
Certificates for new Members read ;
after which the Meeting shall resolve itself into a Conversazione. "

In place of —

XI. That every member shall have the privilege of introducing one visitor at
the Ordinary Meetings, who shall enter his name, together with the name of
the member by whom he is introduced, in a book to be kept for this purpose.

" That any Member may introduce a Visitor at any Ordinary Meeting, who shall
enter his name, with tliat of the Member by lolwm he is introduced, in a book to be
kept for the purpose. "

Each amendment having been separately put from the chair and declared
carried, the business of the special meeting terminated.

The minutes of the last ordinary meeting were read and approved .

The following donations were announced :—" Scientific Opinion," from the
Publisher; " Science Gossip," from the Publisher ; "Land and Water," from
the Editor; "The Monthly Microscopical Journal," from the Publisher;
" Regulations of the Biological and Microscopical Department of the Academy
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia," from Mr. M. C. Cooke ; two slides from
Mr. Curties ; six slides from Mr. Quick ; a simplified live box (as described in
" Science Gossip," p. 66, March, 1867, and p. 115, May, 1869), from J. W.
Meacher.

Thanks were presented to the donors.

Twenty gentlemen proposed at the last meeting were then balloted for, and
subsequently declared duly elected.

The following gentlemen were proposed as members: — Mr. Charles J. Beale,
Mr. W. F. Burgess, Mr. W. Houghton, Mr. Henry Humphreys, B.A.,
Mr. Charles E. Layton, Mr. Benjamin Lemmon, Mr. John Samuel Linford,
Mr. Horatio Pass, Mr. Lewis Pocock, jun., Mr. Llewellyn Powell, M.R.C.S.,
and Mr. John Henry Roberts, F.R.M.S.

The President announced the following, among other objects for exhibition.
A Living polype on a fragment of whelk shell, obtained off Southend (probably
Podocoryne areolata), shown by Mr. Allbon ; Noctiluea miliaris, alive, also
from Southend, shown by Mr. W. W. Reeves ; Distoma and other Entozoa from
the lung of a Frog, by Mr. J. Slade; some remarkable Crystals of Sulphate of
Zinc, and also of Asparagine, and a very fine injected section of Human Brain,

210

by Mr. Hislop. A secretion from the stomach of the Flamingo, by Mr. Lowne j
Lophopus, Tabicolaria, Stephanoceros, and Melicerta, by Mr. Pitch; Batracho
spermum, Vol vox, and Closteria, by Mr. Golding.

Mr. Moginie exhibited a new funnel and strainer combined capable of being
screwed on the necks of the glass screw topped bottles, for the purpose of col-
lecting aquatic organisms.

Mr. Lowne read a paper "On a Secretion from the Stomach of the
Flamingo."

Mr. Lowne also made a short communication " On the Imaginal Discs of Dr.
August Weismann."

A vote of thanks was presented to Mr. Lowne for his communication.

Mr. W. W. Reeves called attention to the living specimens exhibited, which
were obtained from Southend during a dredging excursion of a party of the
members, invited by Mr. Marshall Hall (see Notes, page 202).

Mr. Hislop called attention to a very fine injected section of the Human
Brain, by Dr. Dempsey, exhibited by him.

The President announced the excursions and meetings for the month, and
also the Excursionists' Dinner on June 23rd, at Leatherhead.

The proceedings terminated as usual.

211

PROCEEDINGS AT MR. SUFFOLK'S CLASS.

Thursday, January 7th, 1869.

The lecturer, after briefly explaining the Laws of Refraction and Reflection,
proceeded to demonstrate the properties of lenses and their application to the
construction of various optical instruments, such as the Camera Obscura,
Telescope, and more especially the Microscope. The employment of single
lenses as microscopes was explained, and some useful hints respecting the use of
the hand magnifier given The combination of lenses in the compound instru-
ment was illustrated, and Chromatic and Spherical Aberrations explained. The
Binocular instruments of Messrs. Wenham and Powell and Lealand, were
mentioned, and the advantages to be derived from their use strongly urged.

The subject of Lamps next engaged the attention of the lecturer, and the
respective merits of Gas, Oil, Paraffine, and Camphine were fully discussed,
and attention was directed to various lamps supplied by Mr. Collins. After a
few remarks on the care of the instrument, and cleaning the lenses, &c., the
members of the class were required to examine air bubbles and oil globules,
and note their various appearances ; they were then exercised in the examina-
tion of a few simple substances by reflected light.

Thursday, January 22nd, 1869.

This lecture was devoted exclusively to certain mechanical processes in connec-
tion with microscopical operations, such as cutting glass with the diamond,
drilling holes in glass, the use of corundum grinding tools, the mode of clean-
ing slides and thin glass, and bending and drawing glass tubes. Cementing
with marine glue, the manufacture of cells and troughs, and the bending, tem-
pering, and otherwise utilizing needles and other small pieces of steel were also
explained.

The objects examined were— Sole Skin, Feathers of Peacock and Humming
Bird, with especial reference to the importance of the direction of the illumin-
ating pencils. Bread crumbs were also examined in various ways, as recom-
mended for a preliminary lesson by Dr. Beale.

Thursday, February 4th, 1869.

The processes of Dry Mounting in various ways were explained and illustrated
practically by the lecturer, modes of drying tissues were mentioned, and a new
process at present being experimented upon with a view to its adaptation to
microscopical purposes described The nature and properties of Canada
Balsam, and its uses as a mounting medium, were treated upon at length. The
objects suitable for treatment with balsam, and the preparation required before
mounting, were described. After stating the various advantages to be derived
from the use of this medium , and also its defects and its use as a cement, espe-

212

cially in cutting sections of hard substances, a lesson on mounting in balsam
was given by the lecturer and his assistants, and several slides were prepared by
each member of the class ; some Sifted Sponge Sand, and Splinters, and
Lucifer Matches were then examined", and their respective structure explained.

Thursday, February 18th, 1869.

The subject of Fluid Mounting was commenced, the lecturer's remarks being
principally confined to the manipulative portion of the subject. After the
process of closing the cell with objects in fluid had been practised by the mem-
bers of the class, a